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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

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Chap.....^T. Copyright No 

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



t 



SUGGESTIONS 



ON 



Teaching Geography 



Henry McCormick 

Professor of History and Geography in the Illinois Normal 
University 

Author of Practical Work in Geography 



BLOOMINGTON, ILL. 

Public-School Publishing Company 

1899 






«7 



38192 



Copyright 1899 

Public-School Publishing Company 

Bloomington, Illinois 



19 



Printed by 

Pantagraph Printing and Stationery Co 

Bloomington, Illinois 






CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

Page. 

Chapter I. Why Class Geography Among the 

Sciences? 7 

Chapter II. The Content of Geography, . 13 

Chapter III. The Educational Value of Geog- 
raphy, 19 

Chapter IV. Psychological Value of Geography, 28 

Chapter V. Methods of Teaching, ... 36 

THE BEGINNINGS OP GEOGRAPHY. 

Chapter VI. Direction, Distance, Form, and Color, 41 



Chapter VII. Climate, Evaporation, and Condens 
ation, 



Chapter VIII. Soil, Vegetation, and Animals, 

Chapter IX. Importance of Labor, 

Chapter X. Map Representation, . 

Chapter XI. Analysis and Synthesis, 

Chapter XII. Value of Maps and Pictures in 
Teaching Geography, . . . . . 



51 
63 

' 78 
87 
92 

105 



THE IMAGINARY EXCURSION AND ITS PLACE 
IN TEACHING GEOGRAFHY. 

Chapter XIII. A Trip Down the Hudson River, 115 

Chapter XIV. A Trip Down the Rhine River, . 132 

Chapter XV. A Trip to Ceylon and India, . 143 

Chapter XVI. A Trip to Ceylon and India— Contd. 158 



PREFACE. 



The most of these chapters have appeared in 
The Public-School Journal from time to time. Some 
friends have thought them worthy of being put in 
a more convenient form, so here they are. As the 
title implies, they are simply intended to be sugges- 
tive in their character. No book is of very high 
value unless it suggests better thing's to the user 
than it contains. It is believed that this little book 
will do so, and that it will therefore be helpful to 
teachers and pupils. 

The attention of teachers and of those fitting 
themselves to be teachers is called especially to the 
introductory chapters. They may not approve of 
all that is said; but as honest students they will 
seek after the truth for its own sake, and these 
chapters may guide them in the way that leads to it. 

The chapters under Imaginary Excursions are in- 
tended as models to be followed by the pupils. It is 
hoped they may take as much pleasure in studying 
them as the writer did in their preparation. If they 
do, it is certain that those lessons will not prove 
burdensome in the least. 

It is with the hope that it may help teachers and 
pupils to see the profit and pleasure there are in 
the study of Geography that this volume has been 
prepared by Their friend, 

Henry McCormick. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



CHAPTER 



WHY CLASS GEOGRAPHY AMONG THE SCIENCES? 

Some teachers and writers refuse to consider 
geography a science. They insist that it has no 
basal idea of its own on which to stand, and fur- 
thermore that it consists of facts drawn from many 
sciences such as astronomy, climatology, botany, 
zoology, history, and sociology. 

It must be granted that much that properly be- 
longs to these subjects may be, and usually is, classed 
under geography. And it is greatly to its credit that 
it can take materials from so many sources and unite 
them into a symmetrical whole, but if "science is 
the systematic arrangement of the laws of phenom- 
ena,"* the writer insists that geography is a science, 

that it rests on the idea of place as a 
Place the 
Foundation foundation,! is built up of facts which 

are peculiarly its own and which, with 
few exceptions, may be acquired in the home neigh- 
borhood, that these facts are firmly held in place by 
the relation of cause and effect, and that it has for 
its central idea, connecting it with man and his in- 
terests, what may be termed, earth-life, or the life of 
the globe. 

Not only is the idea of place the foundation of 
geography, it is also the main support of all kin- 
dred subjects and makes their close correlation with 



♦Joseph Baldwin: Elementary Psvchology and Education. Page 30. 
tBain: Education as a Science. Page 272. 



8 Teaching Geography. 

geography possible and intelligent. It is the lead- 
ing thought of astronomy: The place of the moon 
with reference to its planet, of the planet with refer- 
ence to its sun, of the sun with reference to the 
many other suns which constitute the stellar system, 
and the places of the different stellar systems with 
regard to each other and to the ultimate center of 
gravity. 

It requires no lengthy dissertation to 
Relation of ,, , —,. , , , ■. . 

„,. , prove that climate depends on place! 

Climate * L ^ — - 

to Place. (Place near to or remote from the equa- 
tor, place near the level of the sea, place 
at a moderate altitude or at great heights; place 
on the windward side of the mountain, copiously 
watered; place on the leeward side, burning desert; 
place in the path of the warm currents of air and 
water, blessed with fruitfulness; and place exposed 
to polar currents, a frozen waste. And if it is granted 
that climate depends on place, it must be conceded 
that botany and zoology rest on the same foundation.") 
Among the principal factors in what is 
Relation of termed sociology are agriculture, com- 

ommerce merce an d manufactures. These are 
to Place. 

selected because they are the ones with 

which geography deals most. (Agriculture is so de- 
pendent on climate that nothing further need be 
said of its dependence on place. That the centers 
and routes of commerce are largely determined by 
place is also evident. Chicago at the head of a great 
waterway, and New York at its foot, with Buffalo at 
the point of transfer from the lakes to the Hudson, 
testify to the fact; so does the prosperity of Duluth, 
that city being the nearest point at which the North- 



7s Geography a Science ? 9 

ern Pacific Railroad could touch the Great Lakes. 
Kansas City and Omaha owe their importance to 
their position at the gateways to the Southwest 
and Northwest, respectively; while the position of 
Pittsburg - , at the confluence of the Allegheny and 
Monongahela rivers, of Philadelphia at the head of 
navigation on the Delaware, and of New Orleans 
at the outlet of the Mississippi basin, assured their 
importance, at an early day, as receiving and dis- 
tributing points for large areas of territory^) 

Marseilles, because of its position at 
Location of the moutn Q f the Rhone, and in south- 
Cities in Other i T71 • J_ J_ 

n . . eastern France, was important as a 

Countries. r 

commercial center long before Marius 
and Sulla deluged the Roman world with blood, 
and for centuries has had a monopoly of the French 
trade with the Levant. The founding of Alexandria 
at the mouth of the Nile forbade the rebuilding of 
Tyre, and doomed its site to be "a place for the 
drying of nets." And the commanding position of 
Constantinople, with the Mediterranean on its right, 
the Black Sea on its left, the outlet of the Danube 
to the rear, and the route to India in front, has 
always made it the desire of nations. 

The character of the surface of Illinois 
and the proximity of its principal river- 
basin to that of the St. Lawrence, at Chicago, has 
had much to do with creating a demand for thirteen 
railroad bridges across the Mississippi river. Per- 
haps some one will assert that the construction was 
due to the westward tendency of emigration. But 
why this westward tendency? It began back in 
the twilight of history, when the Celts and Teu- 



10 Teaching Geography. 

tons* left their Asiatic homes and were followed by 
the Slavs and Huns. These enterprising pioneers 
moved westward, rather than in some other direc- 
tion, simply because it was easier to do so, owing 
to the general westerly dip of the land, and also be- 
cause they could travel long distances in the same 
climate without meeting with any rugged mountains 
to bar their progress. 

Other illustrations of the dependence of com- 
merce upon place, in our own country and in others, 
could easily be given, but it is not necessary. Enough 
have been given to suggest multitudes of centers and 
almost innumerable routes of commerce both by land 
and water, all dependent on their position or place. 

To show the dependence of many of the 
flanufactures , -,, , r , 

. n . world s great manufacturing centers 

and Place. fe & 

upon place is not at all difficult. Phila- 
delphia and Wilmington (Del.) are engaged in the 
manufacture of iron and steel products because of 
their proximity to extensive fields of coal and iron; 
and their position on navigable waters determines 
that much of their products take the form of steel 
ships. The same is true of Glasgow, Liverpool, and 
Newcastle. Formerly all the great centers of the 
shipbuilding industry were found in ports convenient 
to suitable forests; now, because of the transition 
from wood to iron and from iron to steel in naval 
architecture, such centers are found on the Dela- 
ware, Clyde, Mersey, Tyne, and other waters easily 
accessible to materials used. 



*Many learned men consider these and all other Aryans as aborig- 
ines of Europe, but the majority regard them as of Asiatic origin. 



7s Geography a Science? 11 

manufacture Wilkesbarre is in the great anthracite 
of Iron and region of Pennsylvania, consequently 
Glass. the most of its manufactured products 

consist of machinery and locomotives necessary in 
the coal traffic. Pittsburg became an important 
center for the manufacture of iron and glass early 
in its history, because coal and iron were abundant 
in the vicinity, suitable sand not far off, and the 
Ohio river afforded good shipping facilities. Be- 
cause of their position Birmingham (Ala.), Chatta- 
nooga, and Lynchburg, have in a generation grown 
from rickety little villages into opulent manufac- 
turing cities whose names and fame are known in 
the iron and steel markets of the world. Minne- 
apolis, Richmond, and Rochester have become the 
noted milling points of the continent because of their 
position near great water-falls and in productive 
wheat regions. 

Other Bangor, Grand Rapids, Oshkosh, and 

manufactures, other cities in the great pine belt, are 
engaged in the manufacture of lumber and wooden 
ware of all sorts. While New England, partly be- 
cause of its rough surface, barren soil, and abun- 
dant water power, and partly because of the genius 
ot its people, may be regarded as one great factory 
turning out an endless variety of articles. And in 
nearly every instance it will be found that the lead- 
ing centers are close to water-falls or rapids to 
whose presence they owe their prosperity, even 
though some of them at present are compelled to 
resort to steam power. Birmingham, Bradford, 
Leeds, Manchester, Sheffield, and a score of other 
manufacturing cities owe their reputation and 



12 Teaching Geography. 

wealth, if not their very existence, to their close- 
ness to the coal fields of northern England. St. 
Etienne, Rouen, and Lille owe their manufacturing 
prestige to their nearness to the coal fields of Prance; 
while Lyons revels in its silken wealth, simply be- 
cause Pope Clement V, who introduced sericulture 
into Prance, resided on the banks of the Rhone. 

It is not necessary to multiply illustrations. 
Those given will suggest many others to the thought- 
ful student of geography. And if he is not satisfied 
with a superficial view of this subject, but is deter- 
mined to trace results to their causes, he will see 
that position or place is the most potent factor in 
determining the location of manufacturing centers. 



The Content of Geography. 13 



CHAPTER 



THE CONTENT OF GEOGRAPHY. 

Having - attempted to show that the idea of place 
is the foundation on which geography rests, I next 
call attention to the materials which enter into the 
construction of the science. It has already been said 
that these consist of geographical ideas acquired by 
a proper study of the home neighborhood; although 
it is admitted that a few of them may not be found 
in every vicinity, yet the number of such is small. 
The claim urged here is that geography has ideas 
enough of its own with which to rear a substantial 
edifice, without receiving or taking from other stud- 
ies. All foreign materials are used to adorn and 
beautify the structure. They add to its grace and 
symmetry, but are not necessary to its strength or 
durability. The content of geography proper is 
given below, in part. 

The ideas which belong to land and 
Classification , .., ... ,. ,. ,. 

f El t wa -ter alike are position, direction, dis- 
tance, form, surface, color, and map-rep- 
resentation, including sand modeling and all other 
methods* of expressing form. Those that belong 
especially to the land are hemisphere, continent, 
island, peninsula, promontory, headland, cape, isth- 
mus, shore, beach, cliff, plain, prairie, steppe, marsh, 
woodland, dale, glade, plateau, mountain system, 
chain, range, group, peak, crag, precipice, hill, vol- 



14 Teaching Geography. 

cano, crater, slope, watershed, valley, glen, delta, 
gorge, chasm, gully, and canyon. 

The ideas which pertain to water are mobility, 
ocean, sea, gulf, bay, sound, channel, strait, estuary, 
currents, tides (spring and neap), ebb, flow, waves, 
crest, trough, rivers, formation of, source, course, 
right bank, left bank, wearing bank, building bank, 
velocity, cataract, falls, rapids, bed, tributary, mouth, 
vapor, evaporation, condensation, clouds, mist, fog, 
dew, rain, springs (hot and cold), geysers, frost, hail, 
snow, avalanche, ice, glacier, iceberg, and icefloe. 

To the atmosphere belong fluidity, expansibility, 
compressibility, heat, cold, winds, (constant, peri- 
odical, variable,) cyclone, hurricane, typhoon, etesian 
and simoom; while weight belongs to the three ele- 
ments, and motion to water and air. 

This classification is not perfect. Some ideas, 
such as evaporation, condensation, and a few others, 
cling- with one hand to the water and with the other 
to the atmosphere, and it is not easy to determine in 
every instance which hand should loosen its grasp. 
It is also probable that several ideas have been omit- 
ted, as it was thought better to omit some than to 
insert any that did not properly belong in the list. 

Notwithstanding this intentional economy, it will 
be seen that the constructive imagination can find 
here abundant material with which to build a men- 
Use of the tal picture of any country which the 
Imagination, pupil may be studying, andQ/ie malting 
of correct mental pictures lies at the base of all true study 
of geography. #-But as a building made of bricks or 
stones placed loosely upon each other, without 
cement or mortar to hold them firmly in place, would 



The Content of Geography. 15 

be in danger of falling and killing or maiming the oc- 
cupants, so a system of geographical teachings, in 
which the facts, or ideas, are not held in their proper 
position by the causal relation, is liable to topple 
over, burying the pupils beneath the debris. The fall 
of the structure may not kill them, but it is reason- 
ably certain to crush out all interest in the study, 
and lead them to regard it with dislike, if not with 
loathing?) 

Use of Other It is conceded that a house consisting of 
Sciences. bare walls and a roof, no matter how 

well they maybe constructed, is not an inviting home. 
These are the essentials, however, without which 
no amount of furnishing or adornment would avail to 
shelter the inhabitants from the inclemency of the 
weather. But in order to make the building a desir- 
able home, the walls and floors must be covered, 
and the rooms furnished with grace and elegance. 
So botany spreads rich carpets, beautified with lilies, 
roses, and violets, and bordered with groves of ever- 
changing colors; it also frescoes the walls in tra- 
ceries of the most pleasing form and delicate tinting. 
Astronomy lights up the edifice and causes the con- 
tributions made by botany to appear with added 
splendor. Zoology furnishes animals to be the as- 
sociates, friends, and servants of those who are tc 
occupy the dwelling; and manufacture takes of the 
materials provided by botany and zoology, and with 
skillful fingers fashions them into pleasing and use- 
ful forms; while commerce stands ready to furnish 
anything that may be lacking. And so the house is 
built and furnished, a fit home for him who is to be 
its lord and master. 



16 Teaching Geography. 

E th Lif "But," says the doubter, "botany has 
plant-life for its central idea, zoology, 
animal-life, and unless it can be shown that geog- 
raphy has a corresponding central idea around which 
may be grouped its facts, what has thus far been 
said goes for naught." This condition seems hard 
but in reality it is not so. (If life is a mutual ex- 
change of relations,* and most scientists will admit 
the correctness of the definition, then the earth has 
life; at least it exhibits the phenomena of life, and 
we are justified in taking earth-life as the central 
idea in geography. It is not claimed that this life 
is the same as that of the plant or animal; but it is 
claimed that it is the basis of both of these forms 
and that without it neither could exist^) 
Evidences We are so accustomed to hearing the 
of Life. earth spoken of as a mass of lifeless mat- 

ter, that it may sound strange to hear it classed as 
a living organism. And yet if it has not life it has 
many of the appearances of life. Its molecules have 
their sympathies and antipathies, their affinities 
even, and show them in an unmistakable manner. 
"The magnetic needle always points to the magnetic 
pole, is agitated on the approach of a piece of iron, 
and fairly jumps under the fire of the northern 
lights."* A disturbance of the equilibrium of the 
atmosphere at any one point causes the air in the 
adjoining regions to move promptly towards the 
center of disturbance. The common gas, used in 
lighting our homes, may escape from the jet and fill 
the room with a deadly poison instead of cheerful 
light, unless there is heat to seal its union with the 
oxygen. 

*Guyot, Earth and Man. 



The Content of Geography. 17 

The water rushes down the mountain side, sofull 
of joy and gladness that it cannot behave itself so- 
berly and sedately, as becomes a "dead thing - ," but 
youth-like it goes skipping and jumping, singing 
and dancing, on its way to the ocean. And the 

ocean itself, how often have I heard it 
The Water. ., , . n , , ., 

crooning its low, weird song to lure the 

fisherman out upon its bosom? And having him in 
its power, have I not seen it lash itself into a fury, 
erect its crested billows, and dash him lifeless upon 
the shore; or, in very spite, bury him in some one 
of its dark caverns, so that his sorrowing friends 
could not have even the sad satisfaction of planting 
flowers upon his grave? 

Where, in plant or animal, can be found a more 
beneficent or complete circulation of life-giving fluid 
than in this so-called inanimate earth of ours? The 
waters leave the ocean and are borne on the wings 
Earth of the wind to the land. They fall upon 

Circulation, its arid surface, heal its wounds, restore 
its wasted energies, and cause it to thrill and throb 
in every fiber of its being, until it is covered with 
beauty and utility. Having performed their mission 
of invigorating the land and transforming its dor- 
mant potencies into energizing activities, the waters 
enter upon their return journey. Through rill, brook, 
and river they course, carrying with them all dele- 
terious and effete matter found along the way, and 
which, if left behind, would breed disease and per- 
haps lead to death. From farm, village, and city 
they carry away the germs of diphtheria, typhoid 
fever, and cholera, and enter the ocean a black tor- 
rent of venous blood, to be again sent forth a pure, 
arterial current. 



18 Teaching Geography. 

The atmosphere, too, manifests signs of life, and 
in its operations shows itself a true American, a 
democrat of the democrats. It is opposed to all 
class distinctions and social inequalities. It car. 
The ries the waters to all alike, unless inter- 

Atmosphere, fered with by the sun or thwarted in its 
purpose by the grasping" of some monopolistic moun- 
tain system. It fans the brow of peasant and prince 
alike, favors an equal distribution of heat and cold, 
and drives the deadly microbes from the hut of the 
laborer as gladly as it does from the palace of the 
trust-king. This equality it tries to preserve with 
moderation; but if necessary it can be as noisy as a 
ward politician, and as destructive as "an army 
with banners. " 

These outward manifestations of life are not the 
only ones that exist. A thoughtful study of the form, 
position, and arrangement of the great land masses, 
that is of the anatomy of the globe, will show a plan 
of life and of growth which can be discovered only 
by an insight into the physiological functions per- 
formed by these anatomical parts. These functions, 
according to Professor Guyot, are, in part, "the fit- 
ting of the earth to be the abode of man, and the 
theater for the action of human societies; each con- 
tinent being especially fitted for the education of 
humanity at a particular stage of its development." 



Educational Value of Geography. 19 



CHAPTER III. 



THE EDUCATIONAL, VALUE OF GEOGRAPHY. 

It must not be inferred from what was said in the 
last chapter that the writer would exclude from 
geography everything that does not especially be- 
long to the so-called inanimate earth. On the con- 
trary he is glad to include by the term all facts of 
climatology,' physics, botany, zoology, and any other 
science that helps in making the earth a fit dwelling 
place for man, — and man himself, "to the fashion- 
ing of whose destiny, the whole animate and inan- 
imate creation is tributary,*' and without whom as 
the most important thought, next to God, the study 
of nature would have no interest to geographer, 
biologist, chemist, or physicist. 

Geography What he does object to is the view so 
A Science. frequently presented that geography, in 
and of itself, is not worthy to be ranked as a science, 
and must be satisfied with being regarded as an 
aggregation of fragments from several sciences 
which it has subsidized to cover its poverty and en- 
able it to pass as a charming and useful member of 
the community. 

It is time such views were discarded. It may 
have been excusable to have held them in the past, 
but with the teachings of Guyot, Ritter, and other 
masters so accessible, there is no sufficient excuse 
for such ignorance at present. Through the labor 



20 Teaching Geography. 

of these men, geography has become an individual, 
using the other sciences to illustrate its individuality, 
and having for the central principle of its being the 
relation of all the phenomena and forms of nature 
to the human race.* 

There is a diversity of opinions as to the edu- 
cational value of geography. Those who belittle its 
value, while admitting its usefulness as a knowledge 
Objections study, assert that "if there be mental 
of the Critics, exercise, and good training to be got out 
of the study, they are secondary in importance, while 
in language and mathematics these are first. " ' 'Geog- 
raphy, " they claim, "is the one department of teach- 
ing in which mere information, as distinguished from 
scientific method or intellectual training, is rela- 
tively of the most importance. ' 't But, as if conscious 
that these sweeping statements are unwarranted, 
they admit that, "though much of the result we hope 
to gain belongs to the region of memory only, we 
shall be all the better for inquiring whether there 
is not also room here for an appeal to the judgment 
and to the imagination; whether, in short, geography 
may not be a really educational instrument, as well as 
a mass of facts which have to be mastered and com- 
mitted to the memory." This last statement is com- 
forting. It shows that the critics have penetrated 
the fog that obscured their vision and have caught a 
glimpse of what geography really is. The glimpse, 
it is true, is a feeble one, as the skirts of the fog- 
clouds still hinder the view from breaking upon their 
sight in all its splendor. It is a great improvement 

*Ritter, Introduction to Comparative Geography. Page 27. 
tFitch: Lectures on Teaching. Page 312. 



Educational Value of Geography. 21 

on their previous condition, however, and improve- 
ment is always a fit cause for rejoicing'. 

The committee of ten, in their excellent report, 
treat the subject of geography somewhat exhaus- 
Committee tively, and on the whole judiciously. 
of Ten. They regard it as of equal importance 

with arithmetic in the primary and secondary 
schools, and entitled to equal time. This may 
be regarded as another way of saying that it has 
equal educative value. But while the report as a 
whole is a thoughtful and valuable document, it 
may be said by way of parenthesis, that Professor 
Houston's exceptions to the finding of the ma- 
jority are well taken and worthy of careful con- 
sideration. There is no good reason for making 
physiography a distinct department of geography. 
The reasoning of the majority on this point is not 
convincing. The advantage of carrying speciali- 
zation in studies to the same extent that distribu- 
tion of labor is carried in the industrial world is not 
very apparent, even if it is claimed that our high 
civilization is due more to this one fact fhan to any 
other in the economic history of the world. In both 
cases extreme specialization may lead to greater 
skill and expertness within a narrow range, but it 
weakens the power of the individual, as it unfits him 
to see the relation of the several parts of the work to 
each other and to the completed whole; and geog- 
raphy is pre-eminently the study of relations. 
Opinion of This is necessarily so, for as Ritter so 
Professor happily expresses it, "It is a knowledge 
Houston. 0: f ^g re iations of things that leads to a 

scientific interpretation;"* and notwithstanding all 

*Ritter; Introduction to Comparative Geography. Page 15. 



22 Teaching Geography. 

that may be said to the contrary, geography lends 
itself readily to a scientific method of treatment; in- 
deed, without such method there can be no true study 
of the subject. Consequently as regards physiog- 
raphy, Professor Houston's views are wiser than 
those of the majority of the committee. It is advis- 
able, as he clearly shows, that the facts and processes 
embraced under the term should be taught as a part 
of physical geography in the first year of the high 
school work. He might justly have said that they 
may profitably be introduced, to quite an extent, in 
the grammar and intermediate grades, and to a lesser 
degree in the primary school. They will be so intro- 
duced by every good teacher, even though the for- 
mal arrangement of the curriculum may decree 
otherwise. 

Opinion of Commissioner Harris, in his report on 
Dr. Harris. correlation of studies, regards the edu- 
cational value of geography as very great, both as a 
means of obtaining valuable information and as an 
instrument for mental discipline. The knowledge 
which it imparts, he considers of great usefulness to 
the citizen in his daily life; while the disciplinary 
value is so great that he places geography "second 
only to arithmetic among the branches that corre- 
late man to nature." This secondary position may, 
with justice, be questioned. We will let it go at 
that, however, for the present, being duly thankful 
that geography is permitted to stand so close to 
arithmetic, which has heretofore been the autocrat 
of the common schDoi curriculum, but which, if the 
signs of the times are not misleading, will soon be 
compelled to assume a more modest demeanor. 



Educational Value of Geography. 23 

The importance of geography as an introduction 
to the study of climatology, botany, and zoology, 
was discussed in the previous pages, and needs no 
further elaboration. It was shown that it is the soil 
in which their roots are firmly imbedded, and from 
which they draw the principal share of their nour- 
ishment. It is difficult to see how there can be 
a scholarly treatment of the flora and fauna of a 
country without careful attention to its geography. 
Bearing upon The bearing of geography on manu- 
Manufac- factures and commerce has also been 

tures. pointed out, and it can be shown that 

its influence upon agriculture, upon which all cul- 
ture depends, is equally as great. And geologists 
admit that its connection with geology is so inti- 
mate that it is next to impossible to tell where the 
one leaves off and the other begins. 

No study has in itself the entire end and aim of 
its being. Every subject in a well-arranged school 
course is valuable not only because of the facts it 
contributes to the general stock, and of the power 
acquired in obtaining" and properly relating those 
facts, but also because it leads to one above and 
beyond itself. It is a prophecy of something higher; 
and unless it prepares the pupil to realize the proph- 
ecy, it fails of its purpose. Geography is gener- 
ally admitted to be an excellent preparation, not 
only for the subjects already named, but for the 
study of history as well. It is true that the facts 
of history can be learned without the aid of geog- 
raphy, but unrelated facts do not constitute knowl- 
edge, or if they do it is not abiding knowledge. 
There may, however, be other relations than that 



24 Teaching Geography. 

of place, yet the drama of history requires a suit- 
able stage for its acting - . This stage is the earth 
of which geography is the description. There is 
too much teaching of history up in the air; and al- 
though cloudland may be a fit dwelling place for 
the dreamer, it is not for the student. 
Influence of Many illustrations might be given show- 
Geography ing the influence of geography upon 
Upon History, history, a few must suffice. It is a 
remarkable fact, pointed out by the late Professor 
Guyot, that the great civilizations of the world all 
originated in the northern continents, and that as 
far as known no civilization worth mentioning orig- 
inated in any of the southern ones, unless it be that 
of Egypt; but that in all probability was an overflow 
from Asia. He ascribes this fact largely to the 
character of their coastlines. 

Influence The contours of the northern . conti- 

of Contour. nents are irregular. Great peninsulas 
extend into the oceans and are bathed in vapor which 
renders the soil fertile and thus causes it to pro- 
duce bountiful harvests. Gulfs and bays penetrate 
the land, forming gateways by which the life-giving 
fluid reaches well into the hearts of the continents. 
These indentations not only form gateways for the 
moisture, they also become common fishing grounds 
for the inhabitants along their shores. Casual meet- 
ings when in pursuit of their scaly prey lead to a 
comparison of boats, nets, and fishing appliances in 
general, which in turn leads to an improvement in 
the appliances of all' the parties. Barter soon 
springs into existence, and in the course of time 
becomes worthy of being called commerce. This 



Educational Value of Geography. 25 

leads to a fuller and more general exchange of rela- 
tions by which the conditions of the people are 
improved, both physically and intellectually, and 
civilization advances with sure and steady steps. 

Their irregular coastline may be the cause of this 
advancement, or it may not; but it is certain that 
there is, at least, a remarkable coincidence between 
the contour of the continents and the character of 
their indigenous civilizations. Europe, the most 
irregular of the continents, has played the most im- 
portant part in the world's history, and it is there 
that intellectual thought has reached its high-water 
mark. Greece is still the schoolmaster of the world, 
especially in philosophy, poetry, and sculpture. 
And those who would gain renown in the depart- 
ments of metaphysics and pedagogy hasten to the 
land of Kant, Hegel, and Herbart. 

Asia, too, had its civilizations and performed a 
notable part in history. Not as brilliant as that 
performed by Europe, neither is its coastline as ir- 
regular; while Africa, with the most regular outline 
of all, is still the "dark continent. " The two Amer- 
icas and Australia had their civilization imported, 
and the success of the transplanted article is de- 
pendent somewhat on the original stock. Yet the 
continent of the north has already demonstrated its 
superiority over those of the south. 
Influence of Relief is also a prominent factor in the 
Relief. civilization of a nation. The early pre- 

eminence of Greece was not due entirely to the 
character of its coast line, or to the inherent genius 
of its people; it can be traced in part to the fact that 
the country was traversed in various directions by 



26 Teaching Geography. 

ranges of mountains far enough apart to leave room 
between them for the rise and growth of small 
states. The mountains were sufficiently high and 
rugged to form natural boundaries, but not to hinder 
communication. 

Each state could see what the others were doing, 
and, being determined to excel, a spirit of emulation 
was begotten that carried these city-states to the 
pinnacle of ancient civilization. So many are the 
illustrations that might be given showing the import- 
ance of contour and relief in determining the historic 
standing of nations, that the bare recital, it is feared, 
would weary the reader; in mercy, therefore, most of 
them are omitted. 

Influence of Without a careful study of the relief 
River Basins, and drainage of France, the student of 
history will find it difficult to understand why the 
basin of the Loire has been the theater of so many 
great events. Here Caesar besieged Avaricum, and 
notwithstanding the stoutest efforts of Vercingetorix, 
captured the city and slaughtered forty thousand 
of the inhabitants; here Attila, at the head of five 
thousand Huns, was stopped, defeated in a great 
battle, and compelled to retreat to the swamps of 
Hungary; here Clovis defeated Syagrius, and firmly 
established the power of the Pranks; here stood the 
Christian and Moslem, face to face, when the blows 
of Charles Martel sent the broken remnants of the 
Saracenic hosts reeling across the Pyrenees, after 
leaving three hundred thousand of their slain on the 
field of battle; here the Black Prince defeated the 
French and captured their king; and it was here 
that Joan of Arc compelled the English to raise the 



Educational Value of Geography. 27 

siege of Orleans, an event that led to the crowning 
of the Dauphin and to her own execution as a 
witch. 

This famous river-basin was the scene of other 
stirring events, especially in the wars between the 
Catholics and Protestants; but enough has been 
given to cause the thoughtful student to inquire why 
this seemingly out-of-the-way corner of Europe 
should have been the battlefield of Roman and Bar- 
barian, of the cross and the Crescent, and of the 
Anglo-Saxon and the Gaul? He will find the an- 
swer in the position of this basin with reference to 
those of the Garonne and the Seine, which caused 
a portion of it to be a part of the highway between 
northern Europe and Spain. 

The teacher of history is° often called upon to an- 
swer such questions as these. "Why was it that 
Washington's forces at Morristown, although not 
daring to face the British, yet compelled them to go 
by way of Chesapeake Bay in order to reach Phila- 
delphia?" "Why was Grant at Cairo able to 
threaten the lines of the Confederates from the Mis- 
sissippi to Nashville, and even farther?" And "how 
did it happen that Johnson with his comparatively 
small army caused Sherman so much trouble in his 
march from Chattanooga to Atlanta?" The answers 
to these and to all similar questions are found in the 
geography of the several localities. 



28 Teaching Geography. 



CHAPTER IV. 



PSYCHOLOGICAL VALUE OF GEOGRAPHY. 

So far the educational value of geography has been 
pointed out only as it serves as an introduction to 
the intelligent study of other subjects. It would 
be a mistake, however, to infer from this that its 
worth is confined to the service it renders as hand- 
maiden to others, however useful it may be in that 
capacity. It will be found, on a thoughtful consid- 
eration of the subject, that it has a high psycho- 
logical value; that as an instrument for mental 
discipline it is unsurpassed. 

Perception. It affords an excellent opportunity for 
the training of the observing powers, as in its early 
stage it deals entirely with objects that can be found 
in nearly every community, and that may be seen 
by the young tyro. For this reason it should appear 
early in the course, when the senses are most active 
and eager to grasp everything that comes within 
reach. Unfortunately beginners are not always set 
to studying geography itself, but to the study of 
words and maps which are merely symbols of geog. 
raphy. A book is placed in their hands before they 
are prepared to put meaning into what it contains. 
Or if the teaching is oral it is of the straight-jacket 
variety. The pupil is compelled to express his 
thoughts, if he has any, in phraseology which the 
teacher has copied from some book and written on 



Psychological Value of Geography. 29 

the blackboard, instead of being permitted the free- 
dom of expression which is so natural to children 
and which should characterize all teaching' in the 
primary school. This course smothers all spon- 
taneity, all interest, and the child becomes trul}?-, 
"a chip of the old block." Geography is not to 
blame for this sad condition of things, neither is 
the child. The blame properly belongs to the 
teacher, who is so occupied in trying to hide his 
ignorance of child nature and of the nature of the 
subject which he is trying to teach, that he has no 
time to study either the one or the other. 

Geography is also useful in exercising 
and strengthening the memory. Some 
teachers belittle the office of memory, and in so do- 
ing consider themselves worthy of praise. This 
is a mistake and arises from a misconception as to 
what memory is. They either regard memorizing as 
synonymous with "learning by heart," a process 
which "may be entirely sensuous, and which often 
produces weariness of mind rather than mind activ- 
ity;" or else the} r consider the memory a receptacle, 
a kind of storehouse in which all sorts of odds and 
ends are gathered, as old furniture, unhinged trunks, 
and superannuated articles of clothing, are stowed 
away in the garret. This, if worthy of being called 
memory at all, is what may be termed verbal mem- 
ory, and is of little worth, especially if there are 
no thoughts back of the words. 

But that power of the mind by which one is en- 
abled to hold related thoughts in their proper set- 
ting, so that when the occasion for using them 
arises, they can be re-collected and made to appear 



30 Teaching Geography. 

promptly, accompanied by their relatives, instead 
of making a tardy appearance an hour or two after, 
when they are not needed, must be admitted to be an 

important stage of mental development. 
Testimony Kant declares memory to be the chief 

auxiliary of the understanding,* and 
conjointly with observation it lies at the base of all 
mental development. It enriches the learner with 
the wealth of the past, and enables him to enter upon 
his inheritance, and use it in acquiring still greater 
treasures, instead of being a pauper confined to the 
narrow limits of the present. It is a pitiable sight 
to behold a man who has traveled far, read much, and 
perhaps studied profoundly, and yet is not able to re- 
call his facts or conclusions when he needs them 
most. 

Furthermore, what can one whose memory is 
feeble from the lack of proper exercise, or defective 
from any cause, have to reflect upon? For, as Pro- 
fessor Sully so clearly expresses it: "Unless the mind 
is stored with a good stock of concrete impressions 
there will be no materials for the imaginative or 
inventive faculty to combine, or for the understand- 
ing to reduce to general concepts."! But they are not 
in the mind unless they are available for use, hence 
a person w T ith a very feeble memory has but scanty 
food for thought. He may appear thoughtful, but 
in reality he is in a reverie, and his thoughts are not 
worth a penny. The value of geography in exercis- 
ing the memory lies in the fact that it deals with 
related truths, or ought to, and that these truths are 



*Quoted in Sully's Hand Book. Page 172. 
tTeachers' Hand Book of Psychology. Page 172. 



Psychological Value of Geography. 31 

associated with objects that lie in the pupils' field of 

vision. 

By the proper study of geography the 
Imagination. • , . . , , , -. -. , . -. 

imagination is strengthened and trained. 

And it is thought by some that if it performed no 
other function than that of widening and deepen- 
ing this power of the mind, it still would be well 
worth studying. Johonnot regards imagination as 
"a highly practical faculty, the one which more than 
any other enables man to master the forces of Na- 
ture, and raise himself above the domain of sense." 
He considers it "the moving force in every step of 
human progress, by constructing ideals which are 
higher and better than any that have yet been real- 
ized."* 

If these statements are accepted as true, it must 
be admitted that any study which, tends to keep 
the imagination from becoming morbid and unhealthy 
by dwelling too much upon the emotions, and tones 
it up, as it were, by fixing it upon beautiful and varied 
forms, is of great educative value. This geography 
does in a marked degree. The constructive imagi- 
nation, the artist to whose skill and fidelity we owe 
most of our geographical knowledge, is kept busily 
at work. Its office in this connection is to build 
correct images of the unseen from what is known 
of the seen; and since but little of the world is seen 
by children, the accuracy of their knowledge con- 
cerning it must depend largely on this image-making 
power; hence the need that it be properly exercised 
and trained. 

They may never see the Ganges river nor the 



♦Principles and Practice of Teaching. Page 42. 



32 Teaching Geography. 

stately temples that rear their domes and minarets 
above its placid waters, yet we do not wish to have 
them grow up in ignorance of either. So we aid 
them to build a Ganges of their own from the geo 
graphical facts acquired by the home stream, and 
adorn its banks with religious edifices erected out 
of the notions obtained from the study of the home 
church. Imagination takes these concrete notions, 
and modifying them by what is read/ by the instruc- 
tion given by the teacher, and aided by maps and 
pictures, builds them into ideal forms. It is in this 
manner that we acquire the greater part of our geo- 
graphical knowledge; hence the imagination is kept 
constantly active. It is active, too, in dealing with 
objects and their relations: a fact which compels it 
to take upon itself a certain degree of sobriety and 
moderation instead of indulging in wild flights of 
fancy. 

Reflection. Leading pshychologists tell us that 
"The detection of similarity and diversity is the 
fundamental activity that underlies all thinking." 
If this is true, the helpfulness of geography in build- 
ing up the understanding must be evident, as a true 
study of the subject involves constant comparison 
by means of differences and resemblances. From 
the same source we learn that "Inquiry into the 
cause of things has always constituted a chief part of 
human investigation." In the study of no subject 
does the question, "Why?" present itself more per- 
sistently than in that of geography. It will not 
down until it is answered intelligently; and woe to 
the student who tries to dodge it. Leanness of soul 
will be his portion, and dissatisfaction his insepar- 



Psychological Value of Geography . 33 

Questions able companion. It is Why? Why? con- 
Suggested, stantly. Why is not the state of Nevada 
as well watered as California? Why are the deserts 
of equatorial South America on the west side of the 
Andes, while those in the southern part are on the 
east side? Why are the most prosperous countries 
of Australia in the eastern and the southeastern 
parts of the continent? Why do the trade winds 
blow toward the west, and why do the simooms 
change their course with such regularity? Why is 
it that in the three northern continents the types re- 
semble each other so closely, both in the vegetable 
and animal kingdoms, that only the practiced eye of 
the scientist can detect any differences, while in the 
southern continents the types have almost ceased 
to have anything in common? Why do the primi- 
tive races of the Old World present such marked dif- 
ferences; while those of the New resemble each other 
so closely that high cheek bones, copper color, and 
straight, black hair, are characteristic of all Indians 
from the Arctic to the Antarctic ocean? 
Testimony of These questions, selected at random, 
Dr. Harris. are only a few of those that are ever in 
the path of the student, yet they are sufficient to 
show that geography furnishes abundant opportunity 
for tracing effects to their causes, and so may be made 
very helpful in training the judgment. It will be 
found so helpful that I feel justified in closing this 
division of the subject with a sentence from Dr. 
Harris. "What educative value there is," he says, 
•'in geology, meteorology, zoology, ethnology, eco- 
nomics, history, and politics is to be found in the 
more profound study of geography, and to a pro- 



34 Teach in g GeograpJiy. 

portionate extent, in the study of its merest ele- 
ments. " 

Refining There is one other point on which a few 

Influence of words should be said. They are needed, 
Geography. as the point is usually ignored by the 
teacher* although of great importance to the chil- 
dren; I refer to the refining influence of geography. 
No subject does for the pupil what it should unless 
it leaves him better, as well as wiser, than he was 
before entering upon its study; and there is nothing 
that more surely wins to goodness than conscious 
contact with the beautiful. The teacher should con- 
stantly bear in mind that he is educating human 
beings, and not simply arithmeticians, geographers, 
grammarians, or historians; and any teaching that 
does not touch the heart of the pupil and make it 
more God-like in tenderness, sympathy, and purity 
is, to say the least, not good teaching. Humanity 
is greater than scholarship, and pains should be taken 
to make it as beautiful as the love of the Father. 
The Father has willed it so, and has tilled the earth 
with beauty and sublimity — shadows of Himself. 
How Studied The study of geography should, in the 
in the Lower lower grades especially, be the study of 
Grades. a se ries of pictures which the changing 

seasons cause to passbefore the eyes of the children. 
The bright, fresh verdure, the budding trees, and the 
opening petals of spring - ; the billowy meadows, 
ripening wheat, and tasseled corn of summer; the 
golden fruit, dark-brown oaks, and gorgeous maples 
of autumn; and the sparkling frost, pendent icicles, 
and glistening snow of winter, all have their charms. 
They appeal to the finer nature of the children, and 



Psychological Value of Geography. 35 

call them away from what is groveling - and mean 
in their environments. The majestic river pursuing 
its peaceful way to the ocean, and bearing on its 
bosom the commerce of the nation, and the glowing 
sunset tinting the sky with golden hues, intensify the 
yearning after the beautiful. While the gloomy for- 
est, the roaring cataract, and the solemn mountain 
impress the pupils with the sublimity by which they 
are surrounded, and tend to lift their thoughts to 
Him who created the heavens and the earth, and 
filled them with beauty and grandeur for the bene- 
fit of His children. 

From what has been said, we see that 
geography should be taught — 

1. For the mental discipline that may be ob- 
tained from it. 

2. For the knowledge it contains. 

3. For its value 'in connection with commerce. 

4. Because of the basis it affords for the intel- 
ligent study of other subjects. 

5. It should be taught for its refining influence. 



36 Teaching Geography. 

CHAPTER V. 



Hethods of 
Teaching. 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Two There are two general methods of 

teaching" geography, the analytic, and 
the synthetic, each of which in prac- 
tice, admits of various modifications. Some teach- 
ers consider it necessary to begin the study with a 
general view of the globe, in order that the pupils 
may see the relations of the different parts to each 
other, and of each part to the whole. Others, while 
admitting that it is proper to begin with a whole, 
declare that the whole should be a hemisphere, or a 
continent, as the entire earth is too large for the 
children to form a proper concept of it, at this 
early stage of their progress. The criticism is 
partly just, but it is fully as difficult for them to 
form a true concept of a hemisphere, a continent, a 
country, or even a state. In any of these cases we 
can only hope for an approximately correct concept 
to be formed. So that the objections against making 
the earth the initial whole in teaching geography 
are just as valid against any other whole which em- 
braces more than lies within the children's field of 
vision. My own experience with children leads me 
to believe that the earth as a whole is more easily 
comprehended by them than is any large portion of 
it taken as an entity. 

The Still others think the proper way is to 

Synthetic begin with a small portion of the earth, 
Method. that which the children can see with 



Methods of Teaching. 37 

their bodily eyes; that they oug'ht first to be made 
familiar with this in order to sharpen their vision 
for the later geographical conceptions, and their in- 
tellect for the more complicated relations; and that 
the earth as a whole should be considered only in 
the higher grades of study. These teachers advo- 
cate the synthetic method, which they claim is in 
accordance with correct principles of pedagogy, 
in that a small and easily comprehended space is 
treated at the outset; that the most concrete things, 
easily understood by the children, form the ground- 
work of further instruction; and that the gradual 
extension of these small districts is well accommo- 
dated to the gradual development of the pupil's 
mind. 

The True The fact is that each of these methods 
Method. has its advantages and disadvantages, 

and the teacher who uses either to the exclusion of 
the other is not wise. In preparatory geography, 
that is, in the work which may and should be done 
before the children begin using the text-book, the 
synthetic method should have the field almost en- 
tirely to itself. But as soon as they have acquired 
a good stock of geographical concepts from the 
study of the forms in the home neighborhood, and 
are ready to begin the study of regions which lie 
beyond their field of vision, the analytic method will 
come into use. It is not wise to follow the synthetic 
method too far. There is clanger that it will lead the 
children blindly from parts to a whole, keeping them 
in suspense as to the outcome. And this is to be 
deprecated notwithstanding the pedagogical dogma, 
that we should go from the known to the unknown. 



The Beginnings of Geography 



CHAPTER VI 



DIRECTION, DISTANCE, FORM, AND COLOR. 

Before entering upon the systematic 

Need of Know teaching of any subject, the teacher 
ing Children's , -. -. , , r ., , ., 

Kno ledme of snou ^ determine, as far as possible, the 

Geography, extent of the children's knowledge con- 
cerning it. This he must do if he ex- 
pects the best results from his labor. What they 
already know bearing on the matter in hand is the 
working capital, the use of which the teacher must 
so direct that it will bring in the largest possible 
gains for the time and effort expended. He should 
ever bear in mind that all he can do is to direct, to 
influence, to surround his pupils with the proper en- 
vironment. He can, by his manner and by the in- 
terest with which he imbues the subject, stimulate 
them to put forth effort, and that is about all he can 
do. All advancement, all growth, must 

„. ., . ' be the result of their own effort, guided 

Children ' te 

Know? intelligently by the teacher, and this 

intelligent guidance can only follow a 
knowledge of the mental content of the learners. 

Perhaps it would be better to call what the chil- 
dren know of the subject, when about to enter upon 
its study, the foundation on which the teacher must 
aid them to erect their educational 

~ ... edifice. The transition from what thev 

Transition. J 

know to what they are about to learn 
should be so gradual as to be well-nigh imperceptible 



42 Teaching Geography. 

even to themselves. This must be so if the children 
are to retain in school the naturalness, the feeling 
of ease and familiarity, when speaking - of the subject, 
that characterized them before entering school. A 
sudden transition from the familiar to the strange 
dazes them, and often makes them so timid that they 
will say nothing, for fear of not saying the right 
thing. This timidity leads to awkwardness and a 
rigidity of manner which frequently bring upon them 
the charge of stupidity — a charge of which, in justice, 
they should be acquitted at once. But whether we 
regard their knowledge as their working capital or 
the foundation on which they are to build (the 
thoughts are not far apart), the fact to be emphasized 
is that the teacher should have as full a knowledge 
as possible of its amount and kind. 

It maybe necessary to give the children some in- 
struction on direction, distance, form, and, color; if 
so, the following plan is suggested. But if they 
show that they already know those subjects, the 
teacher should pass them by. 

Many people fix direction by streets or 
railroads, and so are "turned around" 
when they go to places in which the streets or rail- 
roads extend in other directions than do those at the 
home town. The teacher should help his pupils to 
fix direction by the sun, and urge them to notice its 
position whenever they go to a new place and before 
deciding what is north, west, etc. 

If the children do not already know the cardinal 
points, they should be taught them. The best time 
to introduce the subject is a few minutes before 
noon. If they stand at this time with their backs 



Direction, Distance, Form, and Color. 43 

to the sun, they are looking north, and 

J 1 !" \ behind them is south. This is true at all 

Points. . . 

seasons of the year, while it is not true 

that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west. If 
they stand with their faces to the sun, they are look- 
ing - south, and north is behind them; they thus 
learn that north and south are opposite each other) 

When looking" to the north, if the children stretcrT 
their arms straight out from their sides, their right J 
hands will point to the east, and their left to the west. 
But if they stand facing the south, their right hands 
will point to the west, and their left to the east; 
thus they learn that east and west are opposite 
each other. The teacher should lead the pupils 
to see that, by a knowledge of direction, they are 
enabled to fix the location of objects and places 
with reference to certain fixed points, as well as 
with reference to their own position. 

It is well to drill frequently and carefully. Drill 

work is valuable not only in testing the pupil's 

knowledge, but also in clearing it of mistiness, and 

in fixing it firmly in his mind. The following drill 

is suggested at this point; "Point to the north;" 

"to the south;" "to the west;" "to the east." "You 

may face the north." "When facing the north, 

what point on your right?" "On your left?" "What 

point opposite the north?" "Opposite the east?" 

"The south?" "Name several objects in the room 

north from you;" "several south from you;" "west;" 

"east." 

When the teacher is satisfied that the 

Semi=Car= class knows the cardinal points, let him 

dinal Points. , , , , . 7 . , , , , 

begin on the semi-cardinal jioints, but not 



44 Teaching Geography. 

before. He should call attention to the fact that 
half way between north and east is northeast, so 
called because of its position. By a little thought- 
fulness and skill on his part the children will find 
out for themselves that northwest is midway between 
north and west; southeast, midway between south and 
east; southiuest, midway between south and west. 

Here again drill work is in order. It should cover 
not only the semi-cardinal points, but the cardinal 
points as well. The questions by the teacher should 
not only test the children's knowledge; they should 
also be of such a character as to lead them to see 
the points in their proper relation. He may make a 
diagram on the floor, showing both the cardinal and 
semi-cardinal points in their proper places. After 
calling the attention of the children to the diagram, 
let him erase it, and ask each of them to reproduce 
it on his slate. Eight of the children may stand on 
the floor, arranging themselves so as to occupy the 
eight points. Let the teacher name any two of these 
points, asking the pupils occupying them to ex- 
change places. 

A diagram showing the points should be placed 

on the north wall and the attention of the pupils 

called to the fact that the north is towards the top. 

Other devices should be tried. Every successful 

teacher must be an inventor. 

„. . Next introduce the idea of distance. 

Distance. 

To learn distance it is necessary that 
the children notice carefully certain measures. Each 
should be provided with a measure a foot long, 
as the foot will be found the most convenient unit 
with which to begin. The teacher should bear in 



Direction, Distance, Form, and Color. 45 

mind that the important thing to be done here is, 
not to teach the children that a certain number of 
units of one order make one unit of a higher order, 
but to help the children to form correct mental pic- 
tures of the distances represented by the measures 
used. The following plan of work is suggested; but 
the teacher must feel free to modify or discard it 
altogether, as there can be no successful teaching 
without freedom in the choice of methods. 

"This ruler which I hold in my hand is a foot 
long. You may hold your hands a foot apart.' I find 
by measuring that John has his hands 
too far apart, and the rest of the boys 
have theirs too near together. Mary has her hands 
about right, but the other girls have theirs too far 
apart. You may try again. I find now that two 
boys and three girls have their hands the right dis- 
tance apart, but most of the others have theirs too 
far. 

"Point to some object in the room a foot long. 
Name as many such objects as you can, and measure 
them to see if you are right. 

"You may all pass to the blackboard and draw 
a line a foot long. Each of you measure his own 
line. How many have a line of the proper length? 
Whose is too short? Whose too long? Erase those 
lines and draw three more lines each a foot long. 
Measure the lines with your rulers; whose are of the 
proper length? 

"The rulers that you hold in your hands are 
marked off into equal spaces by means of lines drawn 
across them. Each space is an inch. How many 
spaces are there? Then a foot equals how many 



46 Teaching Geography. 

inches? Your pencils are how many inches long? 
How long are your slates? 

"Draw a line on the blackboard three times the 
length of your rulers. This line is a yard long. Look 
at it carefully. You may erase it. Point to some 
object in the room that is a yard long. Name two 
objects that are a yard apart. Place your ruler one 
yard from your own desk. This room is how many 
yards long? How many yards wide. 

"Pass to the blackboard, and without using your 
rulers draw three lines, each a yard long. Measure 
them to see how near right they are. 

"Cora, you may stand one yard from me; two 
yards; three yards; four yards; five yards; move half 
a yard further off. James may measure the distance 
and see if Cora guessed right; if so, she is a rod from 
me, as five and one half yards make a rod. How 
many rods in the length of the room? In the 
width?" 

It will be well to have in the room a foot, a yard, 
and a rod measure. As by frequently looking at 
them, the children will be aided in forming proper 
concepts of the different lengths. 

It is not necessary to teach the idea of a mile at 
this stage of the work, as the children will have no 
occasion to use it for some time yet. When it is 
taught, it should be by calling attention to two 
familiar objects that are a mile apart, and that can 
be seen from the school house. 

The teacher will notice that throughout this illus- 
trative work the children are urged first to guess at 
the length of objects, or their distances apart, and 
then to measure them. Why ask them to guess at 



Direction, Distance, Form, and Color. 47 

the length of objects and distances which they are 
expected to measure? 

Geometrical It is possible that such elements and 
Forms. figures as are necessary in map repre- 

sentation may have been learned in the drawing 
class, and the children may now be able to recognize, 
to name, and to represent them readily. Vertical, 
horizontal, slanting, perpendicular, and curved lines; 
the right angle, acute and obtuse angles; the vari- 
eties of triangles and quadrilaterals, and the circle, 
should be familiar to them before they begin to make 
maps. The practice in making these figures will 
give the learners confidence in their own ability, and 
strengthen their power to detect and learn the dif- 
ferent forms. 

In teaching this subject, it will be well for the 
teacher to stand with crayon in hand as he talks to 
his class and place the elements and figures named 
on the blackboard. The following method is sug- 
gested: 

"This straight up and down line is a vertical 
line. Draw three vertical lines on your slates. Draw 
three vertical lines, each six inches long. You may 
pass to the board and draw five vertical lines, each 
a foot long. Point to several vertical lines in the 
room. 

"This is a horizontal line. How does it differ 
from a vertical line? Draw on your slates two hori- 
zontal lines the length of this one. How long is this 
line? Draw on your slates four horizontal lines, each 
four inches long. Draw six horizontal lines on the 
board, each a foot long." 



48 Teaching Geography. 

In like manner right-slanting, left-slanting, par- 
allel, straight, and curved lines may be taught. 
When teaching slanting lines, the teacher should 
introduce the word "oblique," and show that it 
means the same as "slanting." 

An angle is the next simplest form after the line. 
It is formed by the coming together of two straight 
lines, and is their difference of direction. Let the 
teacher show his pupils what this means, pointing out 
to them that the size of an angle does not depend on 
the length of its sides, but on the difference of direc- 
tion. The right angle being the standard of meas- 
urement, should be introduced first, then the acute 
and obtuse; the meaning of those terms should be 
explained. This is also a good time to make clear 
to the children the difference between vertical and 
perpendicular lines. It will be difficult to convince 
them that a horizontal line may be a perpendicular 
line, and that a vertical line is not necessarily a 
perpendicular line, yet it must be done. 

The transition from the angle to the triangle is an 
easy one, there being but the addition of one line. It 
should be pointed out, however, that this slight 
addition gives two additional angles; and that the 
completed figure owes its name to the fact of its 
having three angles. 

An addition of two lines to the triangle gives a 
figure having four sides, and every four-sided figure 
is a quadrilateral, as this long word means that which 
has four sides. If the angles are all right angles 
and the opposite sides are equal, the figure is a 
rectangle; and if the angles are right angles and all 
sides equal, it is a square. 



Direction, Distance, Form, and Color. 49 

Let the names of the figures be taught in every 
instance, instead of having resort to some round- 
about expression, which is fully as difficult and far 
less satisfactory. 

A circle should next be described on the board, and 
attention called to the bounding line or circumference, 
the radius, and diameter. It must be impressed upon 
the pupils that the space enclosed by the circumfer- 
ence is the circle. This is important. Definitions 
learned now should be good for all time and in all 
studies in which the terms defined occur; and there 
is no good reason why they should not be. 

r* i ™, i The teacher should not only drill the 
Desk Work. J 

children in making those forms on their 

slates and on the blackboard during" the recitation 

period; he should also be prepared to keep them 

occupied while at their seats. A box of colored 

sticks that may be bought for a few cents, will be 

found very serviceable in this work. These the 

children can arrange in the forms of lines studied, 

and with them they can make the different kinds of 

angles, triangles, and quadrilaterals. If the sticks 

cannot be procured, the children may be kept busy 

folding papers into the various forms. 

„ , As stated elsewhere, tire making of cor- 

Color. ' & 

rect mental pictures lies at the basis of 
all true study of geography. Color is an essential 
of pictures, hence it is taught as an aid to seeing 
and conceiving forms as they appear in nature. It 
is possible that this subject has already been taught 
in a special class in form and color. If so, it will 
do no harm to review it here; and if it has not been 
taught, it is time it were. 



50 Teaching Geography. 

It is best to use but a few colors at first, and 
those as near the standard as possible. Colored tis- 
sue paper is very convenient for use in teaching this 
topic. "Holding blue paper towards the light, and 
placing with it red, violet is produced. Likewise, 
red and yellow give orange; blue and yellow, green. 
Placing the green and violet together results in olive; 
orange and violet produce russet." 

Let the teacher place upon the table a collection 
of bright colored objects, such as ribbons, fruits, 
flowers, balls of yarn, etc., and have the children 
name the color of each object, and place objects of 
like color in a group by themselves. They should 
be required to select some object on the table, and 
name all objec's of like color in the room; also to 
observe the different colors in clothing, leaves, 
flowers, fruits, animals, the rainbow, etc. 

A box of ordinary water colors will be of service 
to the teacher in doing this work; but if each pupil 
is provided with a box with which to paint familiar 
objects in brilliant colors, success is certain. 



Climate, Evaporation, and Condensation. 51 



CHAPTER VII. 



CLIMATE, EVAPORATION, AND CONDENSATION. 

Children, by the time they are six years of age, 

have acquired a large number of geographical facts, 

and can reason about those facts more 

Forms of intelligently than many suppose. Their 

Land and , . , -, ■. -> £ , 

w earliest knowledge of geography is 

along the line of physical geography, 
close to which follows sociology, while political ge- 
ography brings up the rear. Until quite recently the 
text-book makers tried to reverse this order, and 
some teachers unwisely followed their lead. The re- 
sults were usually unsatisfactory; they could not well 
be otherwise. There is no more crying evil in connec- 
tion with the teaching of geography than this, that 
the children are torn away from Nature with whom 
they have grown into close companionship, and com- 
pelled to study the works of man, and, at first, 
usually those of least interest. Not but what the 
works of man are well worth studying, but every- 
thing in its place. First let them study Nature near 
whose heart they dwell, and to whose every mood 
their souls respond, and the habit of study formed 
here in dealing with that in which they take delight 
will enable them later to turn to the works of 
man with pleasure instead of indifference or even 
loathing. 

They know what is meant by heat and cold, and 
that summer is hotter than winter, although they 



52 Teaching Geography. 

may not know why it is so. Rain, hail, and snow 
are familiar to them, and they understand that all 
three are connected in some manner with the clouds, 
but how connected they do not understand beyond 
that they drop from them to the earth. If they live 
in the country or in country towns, they have seen 
dew and hoar frost, and know that cold has caused 
the frost, but probably will not know it has caused 
the dew also. They have romped so much with the 
wind, chasing' it when it carried off their hats, pout- 
ing - when it blew their hair about their faces, and 
smiling when it painted roses on their cheeks, that 
they will need no formal introduction to it at this 
time; but they possibly will to the air, which has 
behaved itself so quietly that it has not attracted 
their attention. 

Knowing well the amount and character 
Difference of the children's knowledge on these 
in Tempera- p i n ts, it ought not to be difficult for 

the teacher to lead them to see that the 
greater heat of summer is due to the greater altitude 
of the sun and to the fact that it then spends the 
larger part of each day, of twenty-four hours, where 
its heat reaches us directly. Being more nearly over- 
head in summer than it is in winter, the rays of heat 
from it come more nearly straight down, or vertical, 
and consequently more of them will fall on any given 
space, This the teacher can easily illustrate. The 
relation of the wind which they know to the air which 
they do not know, and how a difference in tempera- 
ture between two places causes the wind, can be 
taught successfully to these young learners, if the 
teacher has mastered the topics himself, and has 



Climate, Evaporation, and Condensation. 53 

learned the art of leading children into the light. 

A few simple illustrations with which 
Evapora= the children are familiar, such as the 

tion. "steam" from the boiling teakettle, the 

steam in the laundry on wash days, and 
the rapid drying up of water spilt on a hot stove, 
will enable them to grasp the thought of evapora- 
tion; while the drops which form on the under side 
of the lid placed over a kettle of boiling water, on 
the windows in the laundry, and sometimes even on 
the walls, will lead to an appreciation of the subject 
of condensation. The pupils will see that evapora- 
tion is caused by heat, condensation by cold; that 
these processes which, on a small scale, are going 
on in and about their homes are taking place on a 
larger scale outdoors; and that the sun is the source 
of heat. 

It may be necessary at this point to call 

The the attention of the children again to 

Atmosphere. ,, , , mu . . , — 

the air, or atmosphere. This is not an 

easy subject to teach to beginners, yet, with skill on 
the part of the teacher, they can be led to compre- 
hend it fairly well. They can be taught its nature 
in a general way, its height, its weight, how it is 
affected by heat and cold, and how necessary it is 
to all forrhlTof life. It is heavier than vapor of 
water, and when the heat changes some of the water 
of the oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, etc., into vapor, 
the vapor being lighter than the air is forced up by 
it, and at the same time carried along by the hori- 
zontal movement of the air, that is by the wind, 
until it reaches a place where the cold is sufficiently 



54 Teaching Geography. 

great to condense the vapor into drops of water so 
small and light that they float around in the air. 

The clouds consist of a very large num- 
'ber of these little drops. If the clouds 
are driven by the wind into a still colder region, the 
tiny drops composing them are crowded into larger 
drops which fall in the form of rain. Sometimes the 
raindrops are frozen before they reach the earth, and 
form hailstones; and, if the cold is great enough, the 
little particles of water forming the clouds will be 
frozen and fall as snow. 

The effect of the rain upon the earth can' 

Effect of k e taught. The heat from the sun and 

Rain upon , , . , ,, , 

th E th moisture cause the crops to grow, 

the flowers to bloom, and the' trees to 
send their roots down deep into the ground, rear 
their heads high into the air, and send out their 
strong arms to gather in and protect the birds of the 
air and the beasts of the field. Some of the water 
sinks into the ground and comes out again in the 
form of springs; some of it is taken up by the plants, 
some is evaporated, and most of the remainder is 
gathered into small streams, those into larger ones, 
which in turn unite to form large rivers that flow 
into the ocean, to be again changed to vapor and 
carried to the land. 

The pitcher of cold water that stands on 
lllustra= the dining-room table at the time of the 

mid-day meal, in summer, will furnish 
an illustration of the manner in which the dew is 
formed. Whence come the drops of water that form 
on the outside of the pitcher? Why do they form but 
a little higher than the water reaches on the inside? 



Climate, Evaporation, and Condensation. 55 

Why is it that some days no drops are formed, no 
matter how cold the water may be? And why do 
they never form on a pitcher of hot water? In an- 
swering' these questions, the children will use and 
clarify what they have already learned concerning" 
evaporation and condensation, and the effect of heat 
and cold upon the capacity of the air for holding 
vapor of water. 

The cold water in the pitcher makes its outer 
surface cooler than the air in the room, and the air 
being still, the same particles remain in contact with 
the surface long enough for the cold to condense the 
vapor which they hold into these drops. The drops 
are not seen much above the surface of the water in 
the pitcher because the upper part is not sufficiently 
cold to condense the vapor. Again, some days there 
is comparatively little vapor in the air, and if any 
of it is condensed by contact with the pitcher, the 
drops are so small as to pass unnoticed; or the air 
may be moving so briskly that the same particles 
do not remain in contact with the cold surface long 
enough to lose the moisture they may contain. Why 
drops do not form on the outside of a pitcher of hot 
water wil] at this juncture be evident to the pupils. 
The phenomena just noticed are famiJiar to chil- 
dren both in city and country, and their explanation 
will give an insight into the manner in which dew is 
formed; why there is more of it formed on a still night 
than on a windy one, and more on a clear night than 
on one when the sky is overcast with clouds. If they 
understand about the formation of dew, they will 
readily see how hoar frost is formed. It will be nec- 
essary to touch somewhat upon the subject of radi- 



56 Teaching Geography. 

ation of heat by the earth, but the teacher need not 
be afraid to do so; for if he does it intelligently, the 
children will respond heartily to u his efforts. 

Attention should next be called to the 
land in the home neighborhood, and first 
to the surface forms. The plain, the knoll, the hill, if 
any, the valley, and all other forms that are accessi- 
ble, should be inspected by the children. Descriptions 
b}^ the teacher, however accurate and vivid, are not 
so valuable as actual observation. It is only by com- 
ing into the presence of these forms and seeing them 
for themselves that the pupils acquire apperceiving 
power sufficient to apprehend the descriptions and 
perceive their meaning. It is in the same manner 
that they obtain apperceiving material with which 
to master the geography of all regions lying out of 
their field of vision. 

Especial care should be given to the 
slopes, as the entire surface of the land 
consists of such with their lines of union and lines of 
separation, the lines of union being found in the bot- 
tom of the valleys where the waters from the slopes 
facing each other unite, and the lines of separation in 
the divides, or water sheds, that separate the slopes. 
The importance of a careful study of these forms can- 
not well be overestimated, as a large share of the 
benefit acquired from geographical study comes from 
being able to form and retain a clear, accurate men- 
tal picture of the physical features of the earth; 
which can be done most easily, perhaps, by uniting 
these small slopes into larger ones, and these again 
into still larger, until there is the ability to arrange 
the entire surface of the land into two grand slopes, 



Climate, Evaporation, and Condensation. 57 

one long" and gradual, facing the Atlantic and Arctic 
oceans, the other short and abrupt, facing the Pa- 
cific and Indian Oceans. 

The value of this mental picture will be evident, 
if it is remembered that man, next to God, is the cen- 
tral being of the universe; that whatever affects 
him most, is worthy of the most careful study; and 
that while he may largely determine his conditions, 
yet as a matter of fact they are determined for him, 
in some measure, by the geographical conditions 
of his locality. The most immediate benefit to the 
children, however, comes from seeing the relation of 
the slopes to the stream at their line of union. It is 
poor teaching that will not lead them to see that 
the size of the stream depends largely on the length 
and width of the slopes, that its course depends on 
the direction of the tilting of these slopes, and its 
velocity on the degree of tilting towards its mouth. 
If they see these relations between the home stream 
and the slopes on either side, they will be the better 
prepared to form approximately correct notions of 
unseen streams and slopes concerning which they 
will hereafter study. 

By a proper study of the home stream, 
ome the pupils learn to put meaninginto such 

terms as the source of a river, the mouth, 
right bank, left bank, wearing bank, building bank, 
course, current, velocity, bed, sand-bar, and, possi- 
bly, rapids and falls. This stream, small though it 
may be, will afford an opportunity tor obtaining cor- 
rect notions of an island, peninsula, isthmus, cape, 
promontory, strait, bay, or gulf. The children's first 
knowledge of these forms should be gained from per- 



58 Teaching Geography. 

sonal observation; that is, it should be immediate 
knowledge as far as possible ; and no person or agency 
should come between the learners and the real objects 
which they are studying. 

Unfortunately the objects themselves are often 
ignored, and the children are introduced to the study 
of geography through maps, pictures, and words, and 
that, too, in many instances when the objects which 
these symbols are intended to represent can be seen 
from the school house door. The symbols are well 
enough in their proper place, but meaningless words, 
especially if unnecessary, are always out of place; 
and it is questionable if the study of maps should 
ever find a place in the primary school; the making of 
maps certainly should, but they should be made from 
the objects instead of being copied. 

Pictures are very helpful, when the objects pic- 
tured cannot be seen; but where they can be, they 
surpass even the best of pictures, and should be stu- 
died first. Thirty minutes spent by the shore of Lake 

Michigan would give the children more 
Value of , , . . 

... . correct notions concerning lakes, seas, 

Pictures. & 

and oceans, their waves, the surf, cliff, 

beach, etc., than would a week's study of the best 
painting of any one of them. The educative value 
of the picture depends on their ability to interpret 
it correctly; that of the object is due to its adapta- 
bility to their need. 

We sometimes fail to recognize how admirably 
the child and the universe are fitted to each other. 
The child is so small and the universe so large that 
it is difficult for us to believe and feel that the high- 
est and noblest purpose of everything in the universe 



Climate, Evaporation, and Condensation. 59 

is the education of the child. God in his goodness 
has given us abundance of suitable material for the 
accomplishment of this purpose. But in our pride or 
ignorance we turn away from it all, and substitute 
therefor the work of our own hands, forgetting that 
He who created and fashioned the universe also cre- 
ated the child, and that possibly He knew as much 
as we do about what was suited for its intellectual 
and spiritual growth. 

Not only can the forms of land and water 

„.. . be studied near home, but here also the 

Water. ' 

children can be led to understand, in a 
measure, the results of the action and reaction of the 
two elements upon each other. They have noticed 
that when it rains, the water flows in rivulets in the 
streets, or in the country roads, and is muddy. In 
the streets of the city the rain washes the dirt into 
the gutters near the curbing, where it is carried 
along by the water in two muddy streams. As the 
shower becomes lighter, these streams become 
smaller and clearer, and shortly after the rain 
ceases they disappear. Before doing so, however, 
they carried much of the dirt for quite a distance, 
and left it in patches along the sides and in the bot- 
toms of the gutters. This power of the water to dig 
up the dirt and carry it from one place to another 
can be seen on a country road much better than in 
the streets of the city. After a heavy rain it will be 
found that the ridges are cut down, the ruts filled, 
and the road smooth. The children will know that 
these changes are due to the action of water — they 
knew it before, but did not consider the knowledge 
of any value, as the teacher said nothing about it. 



60 Teaching Geography. 

If the pupils live in the country, they will see how 
much more rapidly the rain cuts furrows and gullies 
in a newly plowed field than in a pasture, or even in 
a field that has been plowed some time; and they 
know why this is so. Here, as well as elsewhere in 
beginning geography, or any other of the natural 
sciences, the teacher should constantly appeal to 
the experience of the children; a large part of his 
work must consist in organizing their knowledge 
and making it available in the acquisition of further 
knowledge. 

The pupils have now learned two things in regard 
to the action of the water upon the land; first, it loos- 
ens the soil, and second, it carries it from one place 
to another. What they have seen the water doing 
in the street, on the road, or in the plowed field, they 
can see it doing in the pasture. Here the roots of 
the grass partially protect the soil from the loosen- 
ing and carrying power of the water, so that furrows 
and ditches will not be made as rapidly as in the 
plowed field. But in the course of time many such 
have been made even in pastures and meadows. The 
creek, which they cross perhaps several times a day 
in coming to and going from school, was made in 
this manner. 

On a rainy day a number of little streams may be 
seen flowing into it on either side. The water in 
these is muddy, showing that they are carrying dirt 
or soil into the creek; and the water in the creek is 
still more muddy. Both creek and rivulets have 
washed out the land along their banks, and the 
creek, being full of water, flows more swiftly than 
usual and carries with it the dirt. As soon as the 
rain ceases the water passes out of the smaller 



Climate, Evaporation, and Condensation. 61 

streams leaving" their channels empty; much of the 
water in the creek also passes off. What is left does 
not more than half fill the creek, and it flows more 
slowly than it did when the creek was full. As a 
consequence of the small amount of water and the 
slow movement, its carrying - or transporting power 
is diminished, the soil settles to the bottom or along 
the sides and the water becomes clear. 

The processes of loosening - and transporting the 
materials of the land from one locality to another, 
which the children see taking - place near their 
homes, is taking place on a larger scale all over 
the land. The water is constantly wearing away 
the ridg"es and filling - up the hollows. If the land is 
soft, the wearing is rapid; if it is hard the wearing 
is slow. But even the hard rocks are changed little 
by little into gravel, sand, and mud. In making 
these changes the water is aided materially, in some 
parts of the world, by the frost. When it rains the 
crevices in the rocks are filled with water. If the 
weather becomes very cold before the water is evap- 
orated it freezes, and in doing so chips off a piece 
of the rock, as any quantity of water requires more 
space in the form of ice than it does as water; this 
is why the pitcher in the cold room is broken if the 
water in it is permitted to freeze. The pieces of 
rock chipped off by the frost are ground against 
each other as well as against the rocks from which 
they are chipped, and then carried down the stream. 
The wind, too, in addition to "carrying 
Frost ^ e wa ^ ers from the sea to the land as 

fast as the rivers carry them from the 
land to the sea," helps in wearing - away the rocks 
and soil. If there is a hole in the rock and it con- 



62 Teaching Geography. 

tains a few grains of sand, the wind will whirl the 
sand round and round. The little grains have sharp 
edges, and are sure to make the hole larger and 
-deeper, and when the rain fills it with water and 
Jack Frost freezes the water, larger pieces of the rock 
are broken off. The wind wears away the loose soil 
much faster than it does the hard rock. Finding a 
small hole in the soil, with a little dust in it, it uses 
the dust in making the hole larger, and then fre- 
quently blows it away to some other place, as per- 
haps it did the sand which it ground from the rocks. 
These three destructive, yet beneficent agents — 
the frost, the wind, and the rain— are constantly at 
work, under the supervision of the sun, changing 
the forms of the land. Every rill, creek, and river 
is bnsy carrying materials from the highlands, where 
the cold may be so great that vegetation will not 
thrive, to the lowlands where it will. They have 
chiseled and carved great masses of highlands 
into hills, mountains, valleys, gorges, and canyons; 
formed the loosened dirt into fertile plains, or with 
it converted the commodious harbor into a fever- 
breeding marsh. Therefore it is entirely proper to 
say that the rivers formed the hills, valleys, and 
plains. The manner in which they did this, and are 
still doing it, can be illustrated fairly well by means 
of the molding board, a little sand, and a sprinkling 
pot. It is far better, however, to call attention to 
these processes as they are taking - place in the 
home vicinity. Observant teachers will find in their 
natural environment nearly all the illustrations 
they need, and will rarely resort to art: when they 
do it is usually to supplement — not to supplant 
nature. 



Soil, Vegetation, and Animals. 63 



CHAPTER VIII. 



SOIL, VEGETATION, AND ANIMALS. 

When studying - the home stream we noticed that 
during, and immediately after a heavy rain, the water 
was muddy. We also noticed that shortly 
after the rain ceased the water in the 
stream became lower and clearer, and 
that strips of sand and mud, with perhaps quite a 
mixture of leaves and other woody matter, were de- 
posited on one or both sides of the stream. What 
we there saw on a small scale may be seen on a large 
scale by large rivers, with this addition, that the 
deposits will contain many pebbles, especially if the 
rivers rise in a hilly region. Soil formed in this man- 
ner is very fertile, and is called alluvium, because 
formed by the action of flowing waters. 

If we examine the wood lot we shall find on the 
surface a quantity of leaves in a state of partial de- 
cay: under these a layer of vegetable 
The Wood J ' " . ., ,., , f . ,. 

mold, showing quite a liberal sprinkling 

of woody fiber; while still lower we find 
the soil growing harder and changing from black to 
a brown or reddish color, with only slight traces of 
vegetable matter, the bulk of it being fine sand and 
rotten rock. Under this will be found the bedrock, 
with its surface rough and uneven and showing 
strong signs of decay. This soil is different from 
the alluvial in many respects, more especially in 



64 Teaching Geography. 

these two, that its richness depends partly on the 
nature of the rock below it, and that it was formed 
where now found? But how formed? 

Some of the children may think that it was 
always as it now is; this is not correct. They should 
know by this time that the face of the earth is con- 
stantly undergoing change — change in both its ver- 
tical and horizontal configurations. Alternations of 
heat and cold, by expanding and contracting the 
surface of the rocks, are tearing apart the crystals. 
The air, frost, and rain are unceasingly rotting 
and loosening the rocks and transporting them from 
their mountain fastnesses, as if with the design of 
dumping them into the sea; while the sea, angry at 
the encroachment upon its domain, hurls itself 
in fury against the margins of the land, undermines 
the tall cliffs, grinds the rocks into sand, which it 
mixes with the off-scouring of the earth, and buries 
the unseemly mass fathoms deep, to await a future 
emergence from beneath the waters. 

No! nothing is as it was; all things are becoming, 
and it is only by a long process that the earth has 

become what it is. It is believed that 
Ch at some time in the past all the land 

that was above the water was hard rock. 
A part of this had to be broken up, pulverized, and 
changed into soil in order that plants could grow 
and support animal life, so there might be both 
plants and animals to contribute to the well-being 
and happiness of man. The manner in which the 
alluvial soil was formed has been described; it re- 
mains to tell how this native soil, so-called because 
formed where it is found, was made. 



Soil, Vegetation, and Animals. 65 

As soon as the surface of the rock was 
Introduction ,. ,,, ^1-^4--^ 1 

of Vegetation sll S' htl y roughened by the agencies al- 
ready named, tiny plants appeared in 
every hollow in which they found a pinch of rock 
dust. These small plants were lichens and mosses, 
such as can be found growing on rocks at the pres- 
ent time. They prospered, spread over large areas, 
and assisted the rain in rotting the rocks. 

The manner in which they assisted was this: The 
lower parts of the plants decayed last year, and the 
upper parts made a more luxuriant growth than they 
did the year before. The decaying plants contained 
certain acids which had a greater destroying power 
than did pure water. The rain, in passing down to 
the rock, absorbed some of these acids, and so was 
able to rot the rock much faster than it could with- 
out them. The decaying vegetation not only in- 
creased the destroying power of the water, but by 
being washed into the larger hollows it formed a 
soil in which grew plants having well-marked roots. 
These roots reached down into the loosened portions 
of the rock, and deepened the soil by mingling their 
lifeless bodies with the rocky fragments. Year by 
year the decaying leaves and stems were adding to 
the soil on top, and the rain and roots were adding 
to the lower surface by loosening and rotting the 
rocks; it was thus the soil in the wood lot was formed. 
There are other soils, however, besides alluvial 
and native soils. We will speak only of one, the 
"drift." The soil of a large portion of our country 
does not rest upon the rock from which 
it was made, but on a great mass of 
stones, clay, sand, and gravel. These materials were 



66 Teaching Geography. 

shifted from where they were formed and deposited 
where they are now found. As they are too heavy 
to have been transported by water, and for certain 
other reasons, it is believed that they must have 
been brought from their homes by the action of the 
ice. The mass is so deep in some places that the 
roots of plants never reach the native rock, while in 
other places so much of it has been worn away that 
the rock can be easily reached. 

The children should be led to see that whether 
the soil is alluvial, native, or drift, it has been 
formed by the action of heat, air, frost, and water. 
They should be made to feel that while it is satisfy- 
ing to know how things came to be as they are, the 
study of the soil has a still higher value, as it is the 
foundation of life. The boys and girls cannot be too 
deeply impressed with the thought of their indebt- 
edness to the soil. 

This world is God's training school, and like all 
his works it is well adapted to the accomplishment 
of his purpose. It is abundantly provided with all 
the materials and forces necessary for the develop- 
ment of man's threefold nature. Land and sea unite 
in furnishing him with a variety of pleasing and nour- 
ishing foods. The study of the forces 
The World ,. f ,. J -. ,. , , 

r d' s h l wnic " are operating around him, and ot 

the laws which govern them, affords am- 
ple opportunity for the development of his intellect- 
ual powers; while the beauty and sublimity which 
surround him on all sides are sufficient to awaken 
and cultivate in him a love for the beautiful, and 
cause his spiritual nature to reach out after the Cre- 
ator and Maker of all, who is his Father, Teacher, 



Soil, Vegetation, and Animals. 67 

and Friend. Any other view of the purpose of the 
universe is unworthy and irrational. It mars the 
harmony which should exist between man and na- 
ture, while this view transforms all creation, man 
included, into a rhythmic poem. 

These thing's beingso, it follows that the thoughts 
of the children should at an early age be turned, not 
only towards the forms of land and wa- 
. * ter, with the forces operating' upon them, 

but also towards the wealth of plant life 
by which they are surrounded. This is necessary to 
a proper understanding of what their geographies 
will tell later of the vegetation of remote regions. 
And while this is not the only or highest purpose, it 
is sufficient to entitle plant study to some consider- 
ation. It is possible, even, that at this early stage 
in the progress of the pupils it should be made the 
main object of the study; the scientific phase of the 
subject being held in the background till later. What 
was said about the formation and character of the 
soils will form a natural introduction to the study 
of plants, their forms, habits, and uses. 

It may be advisable to begin with the food plants, 

and more particularly with those which the children 

can see growing in the fields and gar- 
Cultivated -. m , ,, ,, 
p. dens. The more common they are, the 

more worthy of study they may be. The 

very fact that they are common goes a long- way 

toward proving" that they are good. The so-called 

Irish potato has been of more value to the world 

than all the gold and silver that South America has 

ever produced. Its crop of indian corn is worth far 

more to the United States every year than is its out- 



68 Teaching Geography. 

put of the precious metals, while the plebeian rice 
plant, from the marshes of India, forms the staple 
article of food of the millions of southern Asia. 

Lack of time will not permit a detailed study of 
each of the food plants, and such a study is not 
necessary to a knowledge of geography. A few, 
however, should be so studied, and perhaps the In- 
dian corn is as good as any to begin with. Children 

who notice the seed before it is planted, 
Indian Corn. ., r n , , , ., , 

examine it a few days later when it has 

"sprouted," observe the blades as they come above 
the ground, the stalk when it has tassled, the ear 
with its silk, and learn the relation of the ear, stalk, 
and tassel to each other, will acquire a knowledge 
that is both educative and "useful." When they 
have followed the ripened grain from the field to the 
sheller, from the sheller to the mill, and from 
the mill to the various pleasing and nourishing 
articles of food into which it is made, their edu- 
cation will have received an added relish. If they 
are foolish enough to disdain such wholesome food, 
they may feed the corn to the stock and learn that 
it is converted into meats for foreign shipment, or 
into ham and eggs, beefsteak and roasts, and milk 
and butter, for home consumption. Or if they do 
not care for any of these, they can see both corn 
and meats shipped to other countries, and the money 
for which they are sold invested in coffee, tea, sugar, 
tropical fruits, spices, silks and satins, laces and 
embroideries, etc., with which to tickle their pal- 
ates or please their aesthetic taste. 

Some of the other grains, with the more useful 
vegetables and fruits, should also be studied, care 



Soil, Vegetation, and Animals. 69 

being taken to begin with those which are familiar; 
as in studying" such the experience of the pupils can 
be most successfully appealed to. The impetus 
acquired through interest in these will lead to a 
habit of thoughtful observation, which is the foun- 
dation of all knowledge. 

The study of the uncultivated plants in the lower 
grades should also be carried on along the three lines 

of form, habits, and uses. Botany can 
Uncultivated , , -. , r . n ,-, 

r., no more be learned out of a book than 

Plants. 

can geography. It is the study of plant 

life, and there is no life in the book. That contains 
simply a summary of what men have learned about 
plants, and while it is not the purpose to make bot- 
anists of the children at this early age, there is no 
wisdom in keeping them from studying the plants 
themselves, especially as they are far more acces- 
sible and interesting than the books. To keep on 
studying about a thing instead of studying the thing 
itself, ought to be as unsatisfactory as it would be 
to keep talking about a good dinner instead of eat- 
ing it when it could easily be obtained. 

By studying the plants in the home neighborhood 
the children gather such a stock of information as will 

enable them to appreciate in a measure 
Study Home ,, , . r r , . , 

p. . the vegetation ot foreign countries, and 

to enter intelligently upon the study of 

the science of botany. The accumulation of related 

facts through personal observation is the work to be 

accomplished. 

How does the plant look? Can the children name 

it at sight? How do they distinguish it from others? 

Where does it grow most abundantly and with the 



70 Teaching Geography. 

greatest vigor, on wet land or on dry land? On the 
sunny slope, or in the shaded glen? For what is it 
used? Anything in its character that fits it for this 
purpose? How is it prepared for use? The answers 
to these questions, and to others that will suggest 
themselves to the teacher, ought to be learned bj^ 
actual observation, and not from reading or hear- 
say, or even from the study of pictures. There is 
material enough in every neighborhood for the suc- 
cessful accomplishment of the work, as it is not 
necessary that the same varieties should be studied 
by all. 

Do the children know the most common 
grasses? They can be found almost 
everywhere, and are both beautiful and useful. They 
not only form the principal food of all domestic an- 
imals and of most wild ones, they also fertilize the 
land, save it from being stripped of its soil, and pro- 
tect nations from the encroachments of the sea. 
Flowers are plentiful. God has strewn them in pro- 
fusion over the earth. Have the children been led to 
notice their variety of form and color, and to admire 
their beauty? Do they know all that grow within a 
mile of the school house? Does the teacher know 
them? Has he consciously used them in trying to 
develop the love of the beautiful which dwells in the 
souls of his children? If not, he should at the earliest 
opportunity set to work to do it. 

What of the trees "that climb the moun- 
Trees 

tain sides to greet the rising sun, and 

with their green banners to wave him adieu at the 

close of da3^," — have they been studied? Have the 

shapes of the trunks, the arrangement of the boughs 



Soil, Vegetation, and Animals. 71 

upon the trees and of the leaves upon the boughs, 
with the character of the bark, been noticed? Can 
the children tell by the shape of the leaf and its plan 
of venation the tree to which it belongs? Does an 
examination of the seed or fruit enable them to name 
at once the tree on which it grew? Do they know 
how the seeds are carried from one place to another, 
and how fitted to be thus carried? How many vari- 
ties of evergreens do they know? Is the larch an 
evergreen? The pine? The fir, etc.? 

To show the usefulness of trees it may 
be well to take the one that enters into 
most common use. Perhaps the pine is as good as 
any, although the oak and maple have certain ad- 
vantages. It is hoped that the teacher will not 
begin the work by studying foreign trees, simply 
because they may be remarkable for size or products. 
To begin with the banian tree of Hindoostan, the tal- 
ipot palm of Ceylon, or the "big trees" of California 
would be unwise, as the children would have to de- 
pend entirely on mediated knowledge, a condition 
to be avoided whenever possible. 

It may be that no pine forests are accessible to 
the children, yet it is likely that they see pine trees 
every day , since they are found in nearly every school 
district. If the teacher is acquainted with the fell- 
ing of trees and the hauling of logs, let him take 
the children on an imaginary excursion to a logging 
camp. It will be helpful for them to see, even 
through his eyes, how the men live in those camps, 
fell the tall trees, saw them into proper lengths, 
and haul them to the railroad or the river, to be 
taken to the sawmill. He can interest and instruct 



72 Teaching Geography. 

them by telling- them how the logs float 
Lumbering. -, ,, n • • , u 

down the small river in the spring — 

sometimes forming jams that are broken up by the 
"drivers" at great risk — how they are stopped by 
the boom across the river and taken to the sawmill 
which is near by, or formed into rafts and floated to 
others at distant points. If the children can visit a 
sawmill and see the logs being sawed into boards, 
timbers, laths, shingles, etc., the sight will be of 
value to them A sawmill, however, is a dangerous 
place for children, but they can with safety visit a 
lumberyard and see the various forms into which the 
logs have been sawed. It will also be helpful to 
take them where a house is building and let them 
see in what part of the structure the different tim- 
bers enter, being careful to give the names, such as 
sills, studding, joists, rafters, flooring, etc. 

Other uses made of pine should be mentioned, the 
children being - encouraged to name as many as pos- 
sible. They may have heard or read that turpen- 
tine, tar, pitch, and resin are obtained from the pine 
tree, and the teacher will need to be prepared to tell 
how they are obtained. The advisability of discus- 
sing 1 the varieties of pine is doubtful. Classification 
as such has no place here, although it is recommended 
that the work be done in a systematic and orderly 
way; but the order must not be made too prominent, 
lest the children consider it the principal thing, and 
thus the real purpose of the work be defeated. 

Vegetable life is not the only kind of life 

. . , found in the vicinity of the school house. 

Animals. J 

Animal life exists there in great abund- 
ance and in varied forms. And since this resembles 



Soil, Vegetation, and Animals. 73 

human life more closely than does the life of the veg- 
etable, its study will be more interesting' to the chil- 
dren, Many children have pet animals, others would 
like to have them. If the pet is a calf, a lamb, or a 
chicken, its study may be made the avenue to the 
study of the domestic animals. If it is a rabbit, a 
squirrel, or a canary, its study ought to lead to the 
study of the wild animals. Here, as well as else- 
where, the study of the familiar should come first. 
Familiarity need not breed contempt, and will not 
unless the teacher keeps his pupils studying the fa- 
miliar so long that they become disgusted. Some 
teachers do this, and the result is usually disastrous. 
It would not be at all strange if the boy knew more 
about a dog, and the girl more about a cat, than does 
the teacher. These animals will do very well to be- 
gin with, and the boy should be encouraged to tell 
all he knows about the dog's affections for his mas- 
ter, his faithfulness, and his usefulness; this know- 
ledge may be profitably supplemented with stories 
from books, bearing on the same points. The girl 
may tell about the affection and faithfulness of the 
cat, also its usefulness. Both of the children, by a 
little guidance, can be led to see how admirably these 
animals are fitted to fulfill the purpose of their exist- 
ence. 

When entering upon the study of the animais 
found in the home neighborhood, it may be wise to 
have the children make a ]ist of all the animals they 
know — those they have seen. Such a list will show 
that many of them have been close observers, and, 
as a consequence, know more of the habits of the 
animals than do some of their adult friends; it will 



74 



Teaching Geography. 



also prove a valuable guide to the teacher in deter- 
mining" the animals to be studied. The animals in 
the following list were known to a boy eight years 
of age. He had seen all of them, and could name 
them at sight. He had seen others in the circus 
procession, but they are not given in the list: 



Goose 

Duck, 

Guinea hen, 

Robin, 

Sparrow, 

Peacock, 

Blackbird, 

Crow, 

Pigeon, 

Bluejay, 

Woodpecker, 

Humming bird, 

Canary, 

Meadow lark, 

Fish (several 

kinds, 
Snake (several 

kinds), 
Crayfish, 

These animals, with a few exceptions 
may be found in almost any country 
neighborhood, and many of them can be 
found in the crowded city — in the parks, on the 
shade trees, and on the grass plats that border 
many of the streets. And while it is true that in 
studying nature, the country pupil has some advan- 
tage over the city pupil, it is also true that in some 
respects the latter has the advantage. The public 
parks and gardens afford him an opportunity to 
study many plants and trees that are not found in 



Dog 

Cat, 

Horse, 

Mule, 

Cow, 

Sheep, 

Hog, 

Rabbit, 

Gopher, 

Chipmunk, 

Squirrel, 

Bear, 

Raccoon, 

Skunk, 

Rat, 

Mouse, 

Monkey, 

Chicken, 

Turkey, 



Clam, 
Prog. 
Toad, 
Butterfly, 
Caterpillar, 
Grasshopper, 
Mosquito, 
Spider, 
Bee, 
Ant, 
Wasp, 
House fly, 
Bugs (beetles 
in general). 
Potato bugs, 
Cabbage worm, 
"Fishing" worm, 
Firefly, 
Miller, 



Method 
of Study. 



Soil, Vegetation, and Animals. 75 

the country district; while ready access to the men- 
agerie and zoological garden enables him to study 
animals which the country pupil can only see in con- 
nection with the circus, and the circus is not always 
accessible. The fact is both city and country have 
sufficient material, though differing in kind. A 
slight difference in the forms of life is of little con- 
sequence. The important thing is that the children 
be led to study such animals as they can find, and 
note their relation to the environment. 

' The study of the science of zoology is not the pur- 
pose here, yet this work should prove an intelligent 
introduction to the study of the science at the proper 
time. It will not answer this end if the time is spent 
in studying about animals instead of studying the 
animals themselves. Even at the risk of weary- 
ing the reader by the oft repeated admonition, it 
must again be urged upon the teacher that unless 
the children see the animals they are studying, the 
value of the work will be reduced to the minimum. 
The above list, while not containing all the animals 
that may be found in almost any neighborhood, is 
full enough to show that there is no dearth of ma- 
terial. 

As this book is intended to be suggestive simply, 
no course of study is indicated, as, to be of the great- 
est worth, the work must be laid out by each teacher 
for his own school. In doing this, it is probable that 
he will plan to have the cow and horse studied next 
after the cat and dog.* They should be studied with 
reference to form, color, size, movements, and use- 



*McMurry's Special Method in Science is an excellent guide in this 
study; published by Public-School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. 



76 Teaching Geography. 

fulness to man. The chicken may be studied first as 
a type of fowls in general, and then compared with 
the duck or goose; the leading differences will be 
noticed by the children. In studying the wild birds, 
those injurious to fruits should be named, although 
it is doubtful if there is any bird that does not pay 
for what fruit it eats or destroys, by its destruction 
of hurtful insects. 

Perhaps the study of no other form of life will 
afford so many pleasant surprises as will that of in- 
sects. Almost every neighborhood, city, 

„ . or country, teems with such forms, and 

Insects. - ? 

many of them are very beautiful. All 
insects do not injure fruits or vegetables, and one 
of the purposes of this work should be to point out 
those which do. That was one of the objects of the 
legislators who made the law requiring the teaching 
of elementary zoology in the public schools. But 
teachers and county superintendents, by setting the 
children to learning long lists of animals which they 
have not seen, and many of which they never will 
see, have made worthless the good intentions of the 
lawmakers. 

If this subject is treated as it should be, it will 
lead the children to be kind to animals. There is 
need of this. Some boys are young savages, not 
haviug yet reached even the barbarous state. They 
love to inflict pain simply to see the suffering they 
can cause. This is wrong. No one has a right to 
inflict pain on any being, even the lowest, for the 
sake of gratifying his lower passions. Life must be 
taken at times to support higher life, and for scien- 
tific investigation; even then no unnecessary suffer- 



Soil, Vegetation, and Animals. 77 

ing should be caused. Destructive insects, venomous 
reptiles, and dangerous wild beasts must be destroyed 
to protect humanity, but there should be no cruel or 
long drawn-out tortures. Life is sacred and should 
never be destroyed without sufficient cause, and then 

with the least pain. Ruthless destruc- 
Life Is 

„ . tion of even the lower forms of life has 

Sacred. 

a bad effect on the character and dispo- 
sition of the children. The boy who takes pleasure 
in pulling - a live fly to pieces, or in crushing a worm 
under his heel, will soon become hardened enough to 
destroy the nest and kill the young birds simply to 
see the anguish of their parents. Cruelt}^ to domes- 
tic animals whose lives are given to his service is 
sure to follow, and this in turn leads to unkindness 
towards his human associates. And even if such a 
boy, or the man into whose likeness he grows, never 
commits murder, he is reasonably sure to become an 
Ishmaelite whose hand will be against every man, 
and every man's hand against him. 

Yes, lead the children to observe the animals in 
their home neighborhood, to study their habits and 
to notice how admirably they are fitted to serve the 
purposes of their creation; but at the same time 
teach them to be kind to all living creatures. Im- 
press it upon them that gentleness begets gentle- 
ness, that kindness leaves no sting, and that mercy 
towards even the inferior forms of life is an indica- 
tion of a manly character. 



78 Teaching Geography. 



CHAPTER IX. 



IMPORTANCE OP LABOR. 

The last chapter treated briefly of the manner 
in which soils are formed, and of vegetable and ani- 
mal life. A way of approach to the study of the 
vegetable and animal forms found in the environ- 
ment of the children was shown. The importance 
of the work as a preparation for the intelligent 

study of these forms of life in remoter 
Key to Study . -. .-i -, r 

£ ^t. «, «j regions was urged with some degree of 
of the World. & & & 

earnestness; and it is believed that the 
subject called for still greater earnestness, as it is 
unreasonable to expect children to appreciate de- 
scriptions of the flora and fauna of regions a thou- 
sand miles away, unless they are equipped with 
sufficient apperceiving knowledge acquired by a 
study of their own locality. Much less will they be 
able to trace the influence of the physical features 
and climate upon vegetation and animal life in those 
far-away countries, unless they have learned to do 
so, as far as possible, in the vicinity of their own 
homes. The study of the home neighborhood is the 
key to the study of the world; and without this key 
no one can enter into the enjoyments in store for 
those possessing it. 

It is time to call the attention of the children to 
the importance of labor. Plants and animals fur- 
nish man with food and clothing, or rather with the 



Importance of Labor. 79 

materials which by work can be made into food and 
Need of clothing". The tilling of the soil requires 

Labor. labor, so does the rearing of domestic 

animals. The trees of the forest require much labor 
to change them into lumber, and then with the lum- 
ber to build houses to protect people f^om the in- 
clemency of the weather. Cotton, wool, flax, and 
silk would not answer for clothing were it not for 
the labor expended upon them. And to prepare the 
skins of animals and make them into boots and shoes 
also requires labor. By these and other illustrations 
the children may be led to see the importance and 
worth of labor in converting" raw materials into 
usable articles. 

Man needs not only food and clothing; he also 
needs a fire with which to cook his food and warm 
his home in winter. In most parts of this country 
the fuel consists of wood or coal. The children will 
know the manner in which wood is obtained and pre- 
pared for use, but the method by which coal is pro- 
cured may be new to many of them, especially if 
they do not live near a coal mine. An 
explanation of this will introduce the 
subject of coal-mining. If the teacher has visited a 
mine, descended the shaft, seen the miners at work, 
and has noticed how the coal is brought to the bot- 
tom of the shaft and then raised to the surface, he 
can describe the several processes to the children in 
a more vivid and interesting manner than he can if 
his knowledge has been obtained entirely from books 
or hearsay. And they will be led by his description 
to see the value of labor, and to think more kindly 
of the men who work several hundred feet under 



80 Teaching Geography. 

ground, away from the light of the sun, the beauty 
of the trees and flowers, and the songs of the birds; 
and who are all the time in more or less danger of 
being injured or killed by falling rocks. 

From coal-mining the teacher can easily pass to 
iron-mining, and to an explanation of the processes 
through which the iron passes from the time it is 
mined until it is made into stoves, railroad-rails, 
locomotives, etc. Such an explanation can be made 
both interesting and profitable; and so can an ex- 
planation of the processes through which any min- 
eral passes from leaving the mine until made into 
such articles as best serve the purposes of man. It 
is advisable, hoAvever, that the work be confined 
mainly, if not entirely, to the study of such minerals 
as the children can see mined. 

There are few neighborhoods in which 

/V\ iniiBf*iif* = 

some articles are not manufactured. It 
tures. 

may be that the children see a shoe- 
maker at work day by day as they pass from their 
homes to school, to the store, or to the postoffice. 
They may have noticed the harness-maker, the 
wagon-maker, or the cooper, each working at his 
trade. The children know that all of these make 
things, but they may not know that to make things 
is to manufacture them, and that those who make 
them are manufacturers. As soon as they learn that 
to make and to manufacture are the same, they will 
be ready to name several lines of manufactures 
which are carried on near home. The gristmill, 
brickyard, and stove foundry, if accessible, should 
be visited. 



Importance of Labor. 81 

In teaching the subject of manufactures, teachers 
in the city have a decided advantage over those in 
the country. Their pupils can visit factories, shops, 
and foundries, and so get their ideas at first hand, 
while in some country neighborhoods, the oppor- 
tunities to do so are very meager; and it is only by 
the exercise of considerable skill that the teacher is 
able to interest the children, especially as their 
parents buy in the nearest town or city such manu- 
factured articles as they need. This condition of 
things, however, can be used to advantage in lead- 
ing to the subject of commerce. 

While many people are engaged in manufactur- 
ing various articles, a larger number are engaged in 
other occupations. In this country more people are 
employed in farming, or agriculture, than 
Commerce. j n an y ther business. To farm success- 
fully, the farmers need plows, harrows, 
rollers, harvesters, mowers, etc. These they pro- 
cure by taking their grain, horses, cattle, and hogs 
to town and selling them for money, and with the 
money buying such articles as they need. This buy- 
ing and selling is trade or commerce, and there is so 
much of it being carried on that a great many men 
have to devote all of their time to it. Such men are 
known by various names, as grain-dealers, cattle- 
dealers, etc., but the general name, merchants, will 
answer for all of them, although there is a tendency 
to confine the term to those who keep in buildings, 
or "stores," the articles they have for sale. The 
farmer buys, not only his farming implements, but 
also the clothing for his family, the furniture for his 
home, and some of his food even, especially tea, cof- 



82 Teaching Geography. 

fee, sugar, spices, foreign fruits, etc. Some of these 
he may be able to buy of the manufacturers, but as 
a general thing he buys all of them from the mer- 
chants, or tradesmeu. 

It would be of great value to the children if in 
company with the teacher they could visit several 
kinds of stores. Many owners or managers would 
permit the teacher to bring his class to their stores, 
and would cheerfully devote half an hour to enlight- 
ening the pupils as to the places and manner in 
which his goods were manufactured, and how they 
reached his store. If only one of these establish- 
ments is visited, let it be a grocery store. This will 
afford excellent opportunities, not only for studying 
commerce, but also for studying many fruits and 
other products from foreign countries, and from re- 
mote parts of our own. 

The children by this time- ought to be 
able to see that good roads are helpful 
in the carrying on of commerce. Good wagon roads 
leading from various parts of the country to the 
towns are essential. If the roads are poor, there 
may be several weeks at a time in which the farmer 
cannot take the products of his farm to the maket 
in town. He is mud-bound. If any of his family is 
taken sick, it is with great difficulty that he obtains 
a physician from town. The inconvenience of poor 
roads and the advantages of good ones ought to 
be impressed upon the pupils. Some of them will 
soon be the influential men and women of their com- 
munities, and these simple lessons may, in the near 
future, lead to great improvement in our country 
roads and village streets. 



Importance of Labor. 83 

The importance of railroads should also 

wc £i i I i*o a d s 

be pointed out, and the manner of their 
construction explained. The children will under- 
stand the subject well enough to pay the teacher for 
his trouble. All people are interested in railroads, 
or ought to be. They are a great convenience, as 
even the children can readily see. By means of such 
roads they are able to visit friends at a distance in 
a comparatively short time, protected from storms 
and cold. Or if they do not care to go themselves, 
they can send a letter and it will speedily reach 
their expectant friends. Every town of considerabl e 
size has at least one railroad. The pupils have seen 
the trains standing at the station or moving on the 
track. They know that one engine can haul as 
much coal, lumber, grain, etc., to the distant city in 
one day, as many horses can in a week; and that 
many kinds of articles would spoil before reach- 
ing their destination if they had to be taken in 
wagons. They admire the engine, and wonder how 
it is able to haul such heavily-laden trains. A few 
general facts about its construction, and about the 
power of steam may be given with profit, if the 
teacher understands the subjects, and it is reason- 
able to suppose he does. If he does not wish to do 
this, or feels unequal to the task, there is something 
be can do, and ought to do, and that is to point out 
to the children the impropriety of loitering around 
the station when they have no business there, or of 
defacing or injuring the building or its furniture. 
The children should be made to feel that to scribble 
on the walls or seats is not only vulgar, but it is 
positively wrong. 



84 Teaching Geography. 

The postoffice also is an important aid 
to commerce. The children probably 
have not thought of it in this connection. To them 
it has only been a means of communication between 
separated friends. When father or mother, brother 
or sister, is away from home, they go to the post- 
office frequently, hoping to get a letter from the ab- 
sent one. They are glad when it comes, read it over 
and over, and hasten to answer it, as they know 
their friend is anxious to hear from them. 

The social value of the postoffice the children 
will readily appreciate, but its commercial import- 
ance may not be evident. The teacher can make it 
clear, however, by a few simple talks, and while 
doing so he can impart some useful knowledge in 
regard to postal matters and letter writing. The 
size and quality of the paper used, the proper man- 
ner to begin and end a letter, how to fold it, and 
the appropriate kind of envelope, are proper sub- 
jects of instruction; so is the place for the address 
and stamp. 

Good taste should be observed in all these mat- 
ters. Possibly the children w 7 ill now learn for the 
first time that the value of the stamp depends on 
the weight of the letter, and on whether it is ad- 
dressed to some point in our own country, or to a 
foreign country. It will not come amiss to follow 
the letter, in imagination, from the time it is 
"dropped" into the postoffice until it reaches the 
person for whom it is intended. 

The great importance of the telegraph 
Telegraph and . .. .,, ni 

-, . . in connection with commerce, as well 

Telephone. ' 

as in social life, should be made the 



- Importance of Labor. 85 

theme for a few lessons. If the merchant desires 
to have his goods shipped at once from some dis- 
tant city, he telegraphs for them, and by so doing 
receives them sooner than he would had he written, 
as the wire carries his order faster than the train 
could. By getting his goods in less time than he 
would had he sent the order by mail, he may sell 
them at a larger profit, and also be able to retain 
the customers who might have purchased elsewhere 
had he not telegraphed his order. The convenience 
of the telegraph in sending messages to friends at a 
distance, especially in cases of sickness or death, 
will be apparent to the children. It is not neces- 
sary,- or perhaps advisable, for the teacher to enter 
into the details of telegraphy, yet it is reasonable 
to expect him to show its importance and explain 
the general principles on which the telegraph is 
constructed and operated. 

The telephone is in such common use that it is 
not thought necessary to urge upon the teacher the 
duty of explaining its principles to the children. 
So many of them use it, that in all probability they 
will ask for the explanation, and he cannot well re- 
fuse their request. 

The discussion of the telegraph and tel- 
Electric 

,. .. ephone will lead to the subjects of elec- 

tric lights and electric street cars. They 
have much in common. The poles and wires are 
found in connection with all, while the power that 
does the work is invisible. A simple explanation of 
the battery will remove in a measure the mystery 
which enshrouds the telegraph and telephone, and 
a visit to the power house will reveal how the force 



86 Teaching Geography. 

which lights our streets and homes and propels the 
street cars, is generated. The teacher ought to ar- 
range for such a visit. If it is properly planned and 
improved, the children will be impressed more than 
ever with the importance of labor. 

It is hoped that the suggestions made 

r „ in these articles on the beginnings of 

for te fe 

R k st d geography will remind the teacher of 

other subjects which he can profitably 
teach at this time. No better work can be done for 
the children than to lead them to observe and study 
the forces that are operating all around them, both 
in the physical and social worlds. A knowledge of 
these will put meaning into the operations of like 
forces in regions lying out of their field of vision, 
and will render the study of the text-book interest- 
ing and profitable. 

To make the transition from oral work to the 
study of the text easy and gradual, brief descrip- 
tions of places and industries should be read occa- 
sionally in the class. Pictures also can be used to 
advantage; and simple sketch maps of known lo- 
calities placed on the board in the presence of the 
class, will be helpful. To find materials for such 
maps, short excursions by teacher and pupils are 
necessary. The places and objects visited should 
be discussed afterwards in the schoolroom, before 
being represented by either maps or pictures. When 
the regions made accessible by these actual excur- 
sions are studied, the children will be ready to go 
with the teacher on imaginary excursions, and not 
only be prepared to read intelligently the map show- 
ing their route, but what is better, they will be able 
to make the map. 



Map Mepfesentatioil. 87 



CHAPTER X. 



MAP REPRESENTATION. 

The following suggestions may assist the teacher 
in introducing - the subject of map drawing: 

"We are now ready to make a map of the school 

room, but neither your slates nor the blackboard is 

large enough to make the map as large as the floor. 

So you must let a short line on the board stand for a 

longer one on the floor, and a still shorter one on 

your slates must answer for the same line. We can 

let an inch, or even less, on the board stand for a 

foot, a yard, a rod, or a line of any length we please; 

this is making the map on a scale. 

"Charles has measured the north side 

.. ' of the room and found that it is thirtv- 

Map= 

drawing. three feet. You may all pass to the 

board on the north side, and as high as 
you can reach conveniently draw a horizontal line 
thirty-three inches long; this is making the map on 
the scale of an inch to a foot. Alice has measured 
the west side and found that it is twenty-five feet, 
so the line that represents it on the board must be 
how long? It must be what kind of a line? With 
which end of the horizontal line must it be connected? 
Remember that we learned some time ago that when 
facing north, east is on our right and west on our 
left; hence this line must be connected with which 
end of the horizontal line? 'The left hand end.' 
That is right Mary. Since the east side is equal in 



68 Teaching Geography. 

length to the west side, and the south side to the 
north, we need not measure those, but may at once 
draw T the lines which represent them. What is the 
name of the figure we now have on the board? This 
rectangle stands for what?" etc., etc. 

The teacher should have the children point to the 
side of the room for which each of the lines stands, 
and the corner which is represented by each of the 
angles. Let him keep at this drill work until his 
pupils answer readily and correctly, but not after 
their answers and general demeanor show that they 
are weary of the work. 

The position of the door, the teacher's desk, the 
rows of desks, the desks in each row, and every- 
thing else that appears on the map should be deter- 
mined by actual measurement by the class; but 
nothing should appear that does not touch the floor; 
hence, neither the windows nor the pictures that 
hang on the wall can be shown. 

This lesson affords an excellent opportunity for 
reviewing the preceding work. And as the require- 
ments of good teaching demand in each lesson the 
taxing of the power previously acquired by the pu- 
pils, it is desirable that this opportunity for review 
should be improved. 

All objects represented on the map of the school 
room were where the pupil could see them as he was 
making the map, hence the work called 
s h I v d i n t° activity only his observing powers 
and Vicinity. an< ^ n ^ s judgment. But in making a 
map of the school yard and vicinity he 
will find it necessary to use his memory and imagi- 
nation in addition to the powers already named, as 



Map Representation. 89 

he cannot trom his position at the blackboard or desk 
see all of the objects "which he is trying - to represent. 

Before beginning" the map the children should 
measure the yard and find out its length and width. 
When this is done they should go to the board and 
make the map, as the teacher dictates somewhat 
after the following fashion: 

' 'Place your rulers horizontally against the black- 
board and as high as you can reach conveniently. 
Ready! Draw a line as many inches long as the 
north side of the yard is rods in length. This is 
making the map on what scale? On what scale did 
we make the map of the school room? From the 
left hand end of this line draw a vertical line as 
many inches long as the yard is rods wide. This line 
stands for which side of the yard? How long is it? 
What is the length of the line that stands for the 
north side of the yard? The angle formed on the 
board stands for which corner of the yard? You may 
now draw a line to represent the east end of the 
yard. This is parallel to what line? Complete 
the diagram by drawing the line that stands for the 
south side. What is the name of this figure? For 
what does it stand?" etc. 

Let the school house be shown in its proper place, 
and on the same scale as the yard. The position of 
the gates, coal house, well, and flower beds should 
be shown by actual measurement by the pupils. If 
there are no flower beds in the yard, it is the teacher's 
fault — that is, it is some teacher's fault. If teachers 
only appreciated the wonderful influence of the 
beautiful upon children, there would be fewer such 
ill-kept and disgraceful looking yards as are now 



90 Teaching Geography. 

found in the towns and villages of the state. Let the 
teacher cultivate them, and encourage the children 
to cultivate them, both in the school yard and at 
their homes. By doing - so he will prove himself a 
public benefactor. 

The pupils may next show the streets that border 
on the school yard, the principal business streets, 
the streets on which they travel in going from the 
school house to the postoffice, from the school house 
to the park, from their homes to the school house, 
etc. Let the position of the court house, principal 
churches, and other public buildings be indicated. 
If there is a bridge in town, let its position be shown, 
and the direction of the stream which it spans. The 
railroad station should be carefully located, and the 
position of the railroads which pass through the 
village or immediate neighborhood should be plainly 
shown. 

In mapping the streets the scale must be changed, 
else the map will be too large for the board. It 
may be necessary to let a quarter of an inch, or even 
less, stand for a rod. But as the children have mas- 
tered the idea of scale fairly well by this time, they 
will experience no serious trouble from the change. 

The teacher should not enter into details too 
much, and attempt to show too many places on the 
map. Many err right here. They insist on showing 
every street and alley in the town, and in some cities 
even the ward boundaries are shown. This is a mis- 
take due, no doubt, to the fact that they do not appre- 
ciate the real purpose of the work. They make the ac- 
quisition of facts the chief end, whereas the true end 
is the cultivation of the children's menial powers; the 
acquisition of facts being simply a means to an end. 



Map Representation. 91 

Before proceeding" further in map repre- 

6 u r P y sentation, there should be a study of 

«.i • i-l i- j the land and water forms in the home 
Neighborhood 

neighborhood. How shall this be done? 

The most effective way is to visit the spot under 
consideration. No verbal description can equal this, 
nor convey to the mind of the learner so clear a con- 
cept of the reality. Unfortunately, however, many 
teachers find it very inconvenient, if not impossible, 
to study nature face to face. They have two or 
three classes in their rooms, and feel that they can- 
not go out into the fields and woods and down by 
the "babbling brook" with one class, and leave the 
others uncared for. Yet, notwithstanding the ob- 
stacles in the way, the earnest teacher will manage 
to take his pupils where they can see the several ge- 
ographical forms as they are in nature, and so be 
able later to form approximately correct concepts 
of like forms which lie beyond their field of observa- 
tion. He will leave the higher classes under the 
care of the principal some pleasant afternoon, or 
give them a half holiday; or possibly he will take 
his entire school with him and manage to interest 
all for an hour or more. If the fates decide that he 
cannot follow any of these plans, he can, and will, 
take his class on a picnic excursion some Saturday 
afternoon. Having previously selected the place 
with reference to the work in hand, and carefully 
arranged his plans, he can so mingle work with play 
that the work itself becomes play to the children. 
And while they go home feeling that they have had 
a pleasant afternoon, they will carry with them a 
rich store of geographical concepts to which the 
teacher can appeal successfully thereafter. 



92 Teaching Geography. 



CHAPTER XI. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

In previous chapters attention was called to the 
importance of a full and careful study of the geog- 
raphy of the home neighborhood. It 

a ue ° was shown that without the power ac- 

Home 
Geography, quired from such study the text-book 

will for a time have but little meaning 
for the beginner; while with this power he is pre- 
pared to enter at once upon the intelligent study 
of the text. He is able to change the symbols into 
realities; realities, too, that are familiar, since he 
has seen their counterparts. The cit} 7 ceases to be 
a speck and becomes an orderly arrangement of 
streets, parks, churches, schools, factories, stores, 
residences, etc. 

And everywhere are seen people engaged in busi- 
ness, or in pursuit of pleasure. The oceans and 
lakes are no longer patches of blue or green scat- 
tered over the surface of the maps, but are large 
bodies of water whose waves beat upon the sandy 
beach or thunder against the rocky cliffs. So with 
all other symbols which on the map represent forms 
of land or water; they are transformed by the imagi- 
nation into the realities which the} 7 are intended to 
represent. The ability to work this transformation 
— to change the symbol into the thing symbolized, 
the shadow into the substance, must be accpjired by 



Analysis and Synthesis. 93 

the children before they can use books or maps to 
advantage. And the only way in which it can be 
acquired is by a careful study of the home neighbor- 
hood, which in realit} 7 is the world in miniature. 

Adherence to scientific methods would demand 
that when the pupils have studied all of the world 
that lies within their field of vision, that is, all of it 
which they can see and examine for themselves, 
they should pass to the consideration of the earth 
as a whole. It is no more difficult for them to see 
the earth as a unit, through the globe, than it is to 

see the home state, or even the county, 

« p . through the ordinary flat map. Wheti- 

as a Whole, ever they undertake the study of any 

region lying beyond their held of vision, 
the knowledge they obtain is mediated knowledge, 
and it is believed that such knowledge is more likely 
to be correct when obtained through the medium of 
the globe than when gained through that of the fiat 
map. They are familiar with many objects which 
resemble the earth in shape, but with none that re- 
semble the county or state. Consequently they can 
form an approximately correct mental picture of the 
earth as a whole more easily than they can of either 
of the others. It may be urged that the earth is too 
large for the children to image correctly. True, so 
it is; and so is the state. The only question here is, 
in the imaging of which can they approach nearest 
the truth? 

There is another reason for beginning the study 
of the earth as a whole at this point, and that is that 
the analytic method will enable the pupils to see 
the relation of their home to the world long before 



94 Teaching Geography. 

they can perceive it if they continue the 
Another 
R synthetic method. To work from the 

home outwards is well, if not carried too 
far. To go from the known to the unknown is com- 
mendable when confined to proper limits. These, 
like other general statements, need modifying at 
times. It is wicked to keep children ignorant of the 
relation just named, until they can obtain the knowl- 
edge by aimlessly groping their way from home to 
the confines of the earth. A wiser course is to begin 
the study of the earth as a whole as soon as the 
home geography is completed, follow the analytic 
plan of study until the relation of the home to the 
world is seen, and then change to the synthetic 
mode, and work outwards. This will enable the 
learners to work intelligently and hopefully, as they 
see the end to be accomplished. 

While the writer fully believes in the reasonable- 
ness of the course indicated above, yet in deference 
to the views of many thoughtful teachers, he is will- 
ing to postpone the study of the earth as a whole 
until the pupils have learned something of the geog- 
raphy of the home township, county, and state. He 
is the more willing to do so as he is well aware that 
while they are acquiring this desirable knowledge, 
their intellectual powers are being so developed that 
when the} 7 do begin the study of the earth as a whole, 
they will be able to take hold of the work with a 
firmer grip. So without discussing farther the rela- 
tive merits of the two modes of procedure, provid- 
ing the S3 7 nthetic is not followed at this time beyond 
the study of the state, he will confine himself to a 
brief statement of what may be done along this line, 
and how it may be done to the best advantage. 



Analysis and Synthesis. 95 

We will suppose that the children have done the 
work indicated in the preceding - pages. They have 
made as many excursions for the purpose of study, 
as the teacher thought feasible, and have studied as 
much of the neighborhood as circumstances would 
n th d f permit. Not only have the various 
Procedure. forms of land and water been carefully 
noted, but the agencies by which they 
were fashioned have also received attention. And 
they have been observed busily at work changing 
and modifying present forms. 

The plants and animals have been studied with 
a view of determining their habits and usefulness. 
The leading occupations carried on in the neigh- 
borhood were investigated. The convenience and 
usefulness of railroads, good wagon roads, the post- 
office, telegraph, telephone, etc., were dwelt upon, 
and now the children have reached the point where 
they must enter upon the study of regions which lie 
beyond the limits of their geographical experience. 
There is no better way of doing so than for the 
teacher to lead them on imaginary excursions. In 
the study of the township and county no books will 
be necessary. The teacher has probably seen the 
localities to which he is going to lead his pupils, 
and is therefore able to describe them both accu- 
rately and vividly. If so, the children will get more 
from his description than they would from a book 
as the spoken word is more familiar to them than 
the written one. Furthermore, back of the spoken 
word is a living soul, while back of the written one 
is only dead matter. 



96 Teaching Geography. 

At this stage of the work, and not be- 
fore, it will be necessary to begin using 
Maps. ' J & & 

maps. The study of maps should have 
no place in the lower grades, but the making o 
maps should receive considerable attention. If 
young children are set to studying and copying 
maps, there is clanger that the maps will be the end 
and aim of their study. Instead of proving a help 
the maps will be a hindrance, as they will come be- 
tween the children and the facts to be mastered in 
such a manner as to hide them from view. 

On the other hand, when the pupils have studied 
a locality, they should be called upon to make a map 
of it, as soon thereafter as is convenient. Knowing 
that they will be called upon to do so, causes them 
to observe forms and relative positions more closely 
than they otherwise would. They know that the 
marks or symbols which they place on the map stand 
for things which actually exist, things which they 
have seen. The true relation of the map to what 
it represents will be understood. So that when, 
later on, it becomes necessary for the pupils to 
study purchased maps, they will know that the 
symbols found on these, too, stand for real things. 
The movement should be from the object to the 
symbol, not from the symbol to the object. 

In teaching the geography of the town- 
Township . . , ,, 

- „ . ship, countv, and state, wall maps 
and County. L - ' L 

which show only such places as the 
children are to learn, are to be preferred. Maps of 
the county and state are easily obtained, but it may 
be necessary for the teacher to place on the black- 
board or on good strong paper a map of the town- 



Analysis and Synthesis. 97 

ship. By the aid of such a map and of vivid de- 
scriptions he can lead his pupils to see places and 
thing's approximately as he sees them. 

The localities studied on these imaginary excur- 
sions will at first be comparatively near home, and 
will therefore have many features that closely re- 
semble those found in the places actually visited, 
and so will be readily imaged by the pupils. The 
readiness and accuracy acquired in imaging regions 
near home will enable them later to form correct 
mental pictures or images of more remote ones. The 
growth of the image making power will keep pace 
with the demands upon it. And when the study of 
the state has been reached, it will be found that the 
pupils have acquired such a stock of geographical 
ideas, and such power of assorting and forming 
these ideas into new combinations, that with the aid 
of the text-book and map they will be able to enter 
upon the work intelligently. 

In teaching the geography of the state, 
the teacher should not attempt too much. 
This caution is in order at all stages of the chil- 
dren's progress, but more especially at this early 
stage. Some teachers act as if they believed that the 
more places their pupils can name and locate, the 
greater is their knowledge of geography. This is 
not necessarily true. They may know many places, 
and yet know but little of the essentials of geog- 
raphy. What should receive most attention are the 
underlying principles of the science, the foundation 
facts on which it rests. These, with the relations 
which bind them into an orderly and philosophic 
whole, should be uppermost in the teacher's thoughts 



98 Teaching Geography. 

For while it is not advisable to dwell on the phi- 
losophy of geography with these beginners, the 
simple facts which are taught them should be so pre- 
sented that they may be able to see later on that 
there is a philosophy running through and permeat- 
ing the study. 

The surface of the state should be taught 
The 

, . clearly and with a fair degree of full- 

Imaginary J ° 

Excursion. ness. The imaginary excursion enables 
the teacher to do this in a very pleas- 
ing manner. He pilots his pupils up or down the 
river, as he chooses, ascends its main tributaries, 
carefully noticing the position and direction of the 
divides that separate the basin of this river from 
those of the neighboring streams. While doing so, 
he calls attention to the length and width of the river- 
basin, the side of the river on which the greater part 
of it lies, the character of the soil and the nature of 
the crops. If there is a large city on the river, he 
points out the relation of its location and growth to 
the products of the surrounding region, agricultural, 
mineral, etc. It may be that the growth, or even 
the very existence of the city is due to the falls near 
by, affording it great manufacturing facilities which 
are utilized in converting the forests on the hillside 
and the minerals in the earth into useful articles. 

Or possibly the city is at the mouth of the river 
and has commerce for its leading business. If so, its 
importance as a receiving and distributing center 
for the country back of it is noted. In every in- 
stance the relation of the city to its surroundings is 
pointed out, as relation is the life principle of geog- 
raphy. 



Analysis and Synthesis. 99 

By the time the teacher has led his pupils over 
the principal river- basins of the state in the manner 
indicated, they will know of its surface, drainage, 
climate, crops, minerals, manufactures, commerce, 
and the location of the more important cities. Not 
many cities should be taken; eight or ten is a suffi- 
cient number, but those should be studied quite fully, 
considering the advancement of the children. 

If the teacher is thoughtful and has carefully 
planned his work, his pupils, in accompanying him 
on these imaginary excursions, will not only learn 
the facts just named, but they will also learn what 
part of the state is wooded and what part prairie. 
They will locate the principal forests, recognize the 
most valuable trees, and know for what they are 
chiefly used. They will learn of the wild animals 
found in the state and where most of them are found, 
and will be able to tell in which parts the most do. 
mestic animals are reared, and the kind. But better 
than all the rest, they will know much about the 
people, both in city and country, their occupations, 
homes, schools, and general intelligence. 

Railroads are at present the principal routes of 
inland commerce, consequently a few of the more 
important ones should be studied. This can be done 
to advantage by going on imaginary railroad excur 
sions from home to the chief cities already learned, 
as far as circumstances will permit, and from one 
large city to another. The canals can be studied in 
the same manner as the railroads. If the teacher 
has this part of the work in mind when he selects 
the cities to be learned, the learning of the canals 
and railroads will require but little time and labor, 



100 Teaching Geography. 

and they will serve as bonds to hold the cities in 
their proper place in the mental picture which the 
pupils are forming'. 

The Earth as Having' learned the main facts concern - 
a Whole, ing their home township, county, and 
state, the pupils should be led to the consideration 
of the earth as a whole. This topic has been post- 
poned thus far out of deference to the views of some 
good teachers and, perhaps, the wishes of the par- 
ents, but it cannot be put off longer without loss to 
the learners. 

The first fact to be noted should be the shape. 
To teach this well a globe is essential, the larger 
the better. By having two or three of different 
sizes to look at and examine, the children will be 
saved from thinking that any one of them represents 
the earth in bulk. To give even an approximately 
correct notion of the size of the earth requires great 
skill on the part of the teacher. But the greater 
the difficulty, the greater should be his ambition to 
succeed, providing the topic is a proper one. Per- 
haps the best he can do is to get his pupils to see that 
it is very, very large; so large that it would take a 
railroad train six weeks to travel around it, if it 
were to go as fast as the one on the home road does 
and make no stops for any purpose whatever. 

Other illustrations will suggest themselves and 
should be used freely, providing they are illustra- 
tions that illustrate. The point to be emphasized, 
however, is the shape, and the globe shows this, as 
the oblateness of the earth is too insignificant to be 
introduced at this time. 



Analysis and Synthesis. 101 

The teacher may feel that he ought 

*.t- ^ A.t. * next to teach the rotation of the earth 
the Earth and 

their Conse= on ^ s ax is> an( l the relation of the tnove- 
quences. ment to the phenomena of day and night. 

This is not a difficult topic. It can be 
taught successfully, if the children know the shape 
of the earth, and understand that the sun does not 
revolve around it daily. The revolution of the earth 
around the sun can be made sufficiently clear to pay 
for the necessary effort. It is doubtful, however, if 
the results of the revolution can be made clear. 
Granted that it is desirable the pupils should under- 
stand the cause of the change of seasons, but can 
these immature minds be made to understand it, 
even by the utmost efforts of the teacher? The in- 
tellectual ability of the pupils to deal with the sub- 
ject must not be ignored. It is worthy of even 
greater consideration than is the knowledge to be 
imparted. The teacher can well afford to defer a 
full treatment of this topic until his pupils are pre- 
pared for it, being satisfied now with a general out- 
line. This course may bring upon him the censure 
of some thoughtless critic into whose theories of 
education the capacity of the learners does not enter 
as a factor. But censure is harmless, if as in this 
case, it is not merited. 

The part of the globe that represents 
Comparison i an( j should be compared in size with 
w s the part that represents water. The 

faces. two great masses of land should be com- 

pared in regard to shape, size, and di- 
rection of greatest length. The oceans should be 
named, and located with reference to the great 



102 Teaching Geography. 

masses of land. It will be well to have a wall map 

of the world hung - where the children can see it, so 

they can compare the shape and size of the bodies 

of land and water on the globe with the shape and 

size of the same bodies on the map. Comparison 

should have a prominent place in the teaching" of 

geography. 

The terms, eastern hemisphere, western 

Comparison hemisphere, new world, and old world, 

. . should be introduced, and the reason 

spheres and ' 

Continents. f° r the names given. When this is done 
the two great masses of land may be 
divided into continents. The number of continents 
depends on the definition of the term. It is conven- 
ient to regard them as six, including Australia. 
They can be arranged in three pairs, each pair con- 
sisting of a northern and a southern continent. A 
pupil of average ability will see by the map that 
several of the continents resemble each other in 
many respects while they differ in others. All dif- 
ferences and resemblances should be carefully noted. 

The continents may also be arranged into groups 
of threes — three in the northern hemisphere and 
three in the southern, the two groups being al- 
most separated by a great depression which is filled 
with water. In each group the continents are wide 
at the north and grow narrow towards the south. 

This comparison of the continents is a fruitful 
theme. By it the pupils will be able to fix the rela- 
tive position, shape, comparative size, character of 
the coastline, and many other facts which it is es- 
sential they should know. The teacher should be in 
no hurry to leave it; but when he does leave it, it 
should be to study the home continent more fully. 



Analysis and Synthesis. 103 

The facts already learned about the 
Reviews 

home continent should be reviewed be- 
fore teaching" new ones. In fact there should be 
brief reviews daily. Two or three judicious ques- 
tions each day will keep the matter stirred up in 
the consciousness of the children. This is impor- 
tant. It is difficult to see how there can be any ad- 
vancement in true learning- without this. With this 
knowledge as a working capital the pupils are pre- 
pared to note the irregularities of the coastline, 
name and locate the principal projections and in- 
dentations, the great mountain systems, plateaus 
and plains, and the chief lake and river systems. 
Only a few of the more important facts should be 
considered; enough to enable the children to form 
a mental picture showing the principal, features in 
their proper relations. 

The teacher may be tempted to tarry here and 
teach much about climate, vegetation, animals, min- 
erals, and the people with their various industries 
and interests. The wisdom of doing - so is doubtful, 
to say the least. The purpose now should be to get 
back to the home, marking the road so plainly, that 
when the pupils start out on their conquest of the 
world, they will know the route to be traveled, and 
see the relation of each day's journey to the start- 
ing point, and to the entire work to be accom- 
plished. 

On the home continent are situated sev- 

n .. . eral countries. Their boundaries are 
Continent. 

determined by men, and are arbitrarily 
fixed, often without reference to natural limitations. 
Consequently the political and natural divisions 



104 Teaching Geography. 

rarely coincide. So the best we can now do is to 
teach the names and positions of the countries with 
a few general facts about each; the number of facts 
to be determined by the relative importance of the 
countries. The home country should of course re- 
ceive most attention. Even this should not be 
studied too much in detail. Its position on the con- 
tinent, its shape, size, climate, and in a general way 
its varied productions should be noted. The natural 
features should be reviewed. And it may be well 
to teach a few of the principal cities and railroads. 
The position of the home state must be fixed, and 
its relation to the country as a whole noticed. 
When this is done, the pupils will be prepared to 
move intelligently "from the home outwards;" to go 
"from the known to the unknown;" and there is no 
better or more interesting way of doing so than the 
imaginary excursion. 



Value of Maps and Pictures. 105 



CHAPTER XI 



VALUE OF MAPS AND PICTURES IN TEACHING GEOG- 
RAPHY. 

Next to the object itself, its picture ex- 
Pictures 

cites the greatest interest, and conveys 

to the mind the clearest and most accurate impres- 
sions. Besides appealing" to the eye, which is valu- 
able, if it is a good picture it will also awaken the 
innate love of beauty with which we must credit the 
average child. The wealth of illustrations found in 
our text-books shows that pictures are regarded by 
teachers, generally, as important aids in education. 
Were it not so, publishers would not goto the trouble 
and expense of inserting them, as they are not in the 
habit of expending their money upon that which is 
naught. The illustrations in our leading geographies 
are pleasing to the eye, and, in the main, truthfully 
represent the objects for which they stand. Yet 
there are teachers who either entirely ignore these 
pictures, or refer to them as pictures, simply, with- 
out connecting them with the objects. This is a mis- 
fortune, as the illustrations are sometimes as valu- 
able as the text. 

Geographical pictures are abundant, and can be 
obtained at little expense. The teacher should have 
on his desk, or on the reference table, copies of sev- 
eral geographies. This will give him quite a variety 
pf pictures. In addition, he can obtain beautifully 



106 Teaching Geography. 

and profusely illustrated pamphlets from the agents 
of the principal railroads by sending - a few postage 
stamps. Several such lie on my table as I am writ- 
ing. In one, issued by the New York Central and 
Hudson River railroad, I find a view of Niagara Falls 
a glance at which will give a child more knowledge 
than will ten or fifteen minutes spent in studying a 
verbal description. Here, also, are views of the 
Hudson river at several points, showing the Palis- 
ades, the Highlands, and several other famous lo- 
calities. The valley of the Mohawk, the Erie canal, 
and the lakes of northwestern New York offered 
many beautiful scenes, which the artist has kindly 
placed here for my benefit. The West, not to be 
out-done, has sent me "Indian Land and Wonder 
Land," all the way from St. Paul, for six cents. An 
artist friend of mine tells me that the illustrations 
in this volume are the finest he has ever seen in such 
books; in fact, that they are gems of art. The first 
one to which I turn satisfies me that my friend's 
judgment is good. It is a picture of Lake Chelan, 
in Washington. On one side of the lake are seen a 
few huts, several fields and a number of men busily 
at work, showing that settlers have been attracted 
by the beauty of the location and the fertility of the 
soil. On the other side are. the mountains, whose 
shadows are thrown far out upon the water. This 
is but one of many scenes depicted by the artist. 
The Bad Lands of North Dakota, the Yellowstone 
Park and Alaska, are represented by barren wastes, 
towering mountains, placid lakes, steaming geysers 
and foaming cataracts; all of which can be made 
very serviceable in the geography class. Railroads 



Value of Maps and Pictures. 107 

are not the only corporations that advertise their 
business in such artistic forms; publishers and man- 
ufacturers also advertise by means of illustrated 
pamphlets, which they are glad to send to teachers 
who ask for them and are willing" to pay the postage. 
Stereoscopic views can also be used to advantage. 
They are not very expensive, do not occupy much 
space, and can easily be carried from place to place. 
This last is quite an item in their favor, as the 
teacher's health may cause him frequently to move 
from district to district. I use this class of pictures 

somewhat freely in my teaching, and I 
Stereoscopic , , , ,, , , ,".,, 

y . should use them more freely still were 

I teaching boys and girls. My experi- 
ence leads me to value them highly. I find that 
if a pupil has looked at a picture of the locality, 
or object, he will get much more from reading a 
description of it, or from listening to a description 
by the teacher, than he will if he has not seen the 
picture. He sees the object through the picture, 
and so has something tangible to which to apply the 
words. This is true of any good picture. 

Pictures not only aid the pupils in getting clear 
geographical notions of those parts of the world 
which they have not seen; they are of great assist- 
ance to the teacher as well. They inspire him to 
paint vivid word-pictures of objects and localities, 
a gift which every teacher should diligently seek. 
A bird's-eye view of the basin of Lake Champlain, 
bordered on the east and west by mountains, whose 
ramifications extend well down toward the lake, 
diversifying the surface with sunny slope and shady 
vale, traversed by sparkling streams, and dotted 



108 Teaching Geography. 

with cities and villages, many of which are mirrored 
in the clear waters of the lake, while others are sur- 
rounded by well-kept farms, whose sleek herds and 
fine-wooled flocks show the thrift of the owners, will 
materially aid the teacher in describing* any lake 
basin. In like manner a good picture of a river basin 
will help in describing other river basins; and a good 
representation of a woodland scene will assist in 
picturing other woodland scenes, etc. I place such 
high estimate on this power of word- 

„ .. picturing that I have no hesitation in 

Reading. L ° 

saying: Blessed are the pupils whose 
teacher has this gift, provided it is seasoned with 
good sense; otherwise he may be airing his ability 
in season and out of season, and the gift may do 
more harm than good. 

Looking at pictures, however, should not be made 
the main purpose of the recitation. They are valu- 
able, simply, as means to an end, and the end in this 
instance is the acquisition of geographical knowl- 
edge. If the examination of the pictures is made 
the end, then the pictures are hurtful, and will lead 
to dissipation of energy and waste of time, as the 
attention of the pupils is drawn away from the geog- 
raphy, and fixed upon the pictures as pleasing ob- 
jects merely. This will be especially true of the 
younger children whose will-power is weak and 
whose craving is strong for that which is pleasing. 
Hence the need of caution. Without its exercise a 
good thing may be rendered worse than useless. 

Geography is not a study of words and 

maps. It is a study of the world in 

which we live, work, and go to school. It calls at- 



Value of Maps and Pictures. 109 

tention to the various forms of land and water, to 
all forms of life, but more especially to man and all 
that concerns him. The atmosphere is studied and 
its importance shown. In the lower grades these 
facts, forms, and notions are studied only as they 
exist in the home neighborhood.^ Only such forms 
as lie within his field of vision and such facts as 
find a response in his own experience, must be pre- 
sented to the young - learner. 

Above the primary grades the printed map can 
be made helpful, but not before. Even here there is 
danger that it will be looked upon as the real object 
of study, instead of being regarded as a symbol. I 
am satisfied that there are many pupils who spend 
weeks or months on the geography of North Amer- 
ica without once thinking of the real continent. Its 
great extent, snow-capped mountains, broad pla- 
teaus, fertile plains, inland seas, majestic rivers, 
peaceful farms, busy cities, etc., are to them as 
though they did not exist. Their thoughts are cen- 
tered on the map that hangs on the wall, or on the 
smaller one that is in their text-book; but they do 
not appreciate the true function of either. 

There must be a constant effort on the part of the 
teacher to get his pupils to see that the map is a 
symbol, and that its purpose is to enable the mind 
to pass over from the words to the forms of real land 
and water, which are described by the words. When 
the map is regarded in this light it is a valuable 
aid in teaching, as it suggests a picture, and geog- 
raphy may justly be regarded as a series of related 
pictures. 

All maps are helpful when pupils are taught 
their purpose, but the raised map is the most help- 



110 Teaching Geography. 

ful. It excels the fiat map, not only because it 
shows the vertical configuration, which the other 
does not, but because it shows the contour even 
better, as it suggests that it is determined by the 
character of the surface. It is true that some ob- 
ject to the raised map because altitudes must be 
exaggerated and out of all due proportion to hori- 
zontal distances, in order that the vertical forms 
may be appreciable. Admitting that there must be 
exaggeration, yet is it not a fact that notwith- 
standing this fault the raised map enables the chil- 
dren to form a truer mental picture of the surface 
than does the flat map? I believe this to be true; 
consequently I favor its use, and urge all teachers 
of geography to get a good supply of the best raised 
maps. With all their imperfections they will lead 
the children nearer the truth than will the flat 
maps; and the truth is the desired goal. 

Next in usefulness to the raised maps are the 
physical maps, of w T hich Guyot's are among the best. 
These maps show different altitudes by means of 
different colors. They enable the pupils to see the 
location and directions of the mountain system, the 
position and comparative size of the plains and 
plateaus, and the position of the deserts with the 
reasons therefor. Notwithstanding that these maps 
give an opportunity for using but one sense while 
the raised maps invite the use of two, yet they are 
desirable helps, and by an intelligent use of them 
good results may be obtained. 

It is hardly necessary to spend much time in dis- 
cussing the helpfulness of a map that does not show 
relief by some device. There are but few such, and 



Value of Maps and Pictures. Ill 

they are rapidly passing - away; and let them go. 
May the school houses that now know them, soon 
know them no more. In the hands of skillful teach- 
ers they did some good; when used by others they 
often did harm. They are far inferior to the phys- 
ical maps, yet cost nearly as much. There is, there- 
fore, no reason other than the oratory of the agent 
for buying any more of them. 

Of all the devices used in aiding the 
_ . .. imagination to picture remote geograph- 

ical forms, sand modeling is the most 
serviceable. By its aid forms of contour and relief 
can be shown as readily as by the raised maps, and 
they can be altered easily. The pupils can be made 
to see the continent, island, or peninsula growing 
under the hands of the teacher. This will be more 
likely to inspire them to put forth effort than will 
the looking at a map which is unalterably fashioned, 
when it is brought before them. By seeing things 
made, children will learn to make them more readily 
than they will by hearing how they are made, as 
they will be more interested. Here the various forms 
are fashioned gradually as they were in nature, and 
the nearer nature we can keep the device, the better. 
This is why the molded form suggests the real land 
or water more readily than does the map. 

The sand is also very helpful in enabling the chil- 
dren to understand how the surface of the earth has 
been changed, and is constantly being changed by 
the action of the air, frost, water, etc. This cannot 
be shown by the aid of maps, yet the learners' at- 
tention should be called to it, so they may be led to 
observe the work of the threat artists who are con- 



112 Teaching Geography. 

stantly carving" and chiseling", wearing down the 
sharp ridges and filling up the unsightly hollows 
that mar the appearance of our earth-home. 

Another advantage that sand modeling has, is 
that it can be used in all the grades from the pri- 
mary to the high school. It is especially valuable 
in teaching physical geography; but as that is the 
basis and most important part of all geography, it 
is reasonable to suppose that it is taught through- 
out the entire course. 

Objections are sometimes made to sand modeling 
because of the exaggeration necessary, and because 
of the danger that the children will use the forms 
shown in the sand as the standards with which to 
measure like forms in nature. What has been said 
in defense of raised maps will apply here equally as 
well. And it is safe to say that no evil will result 
from the use of the sand or raised maps if the teacher 
exercises due care. 



The Imaginary Excursion 

and its Place in Teaching Geography. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



A TRIP DOWN THE HUDSON RIVER. 

To read a map correctly is quite an 

Proper achievement. The ability to do so is 

Interpretation ... ., . , •,,. , -, 

. M a prerequisite to the intelligent study 

of all regions which cannot be visited 
by the learner. The accuracy of the mental picture 
formed depends on the power to interpret geograph- 
ical symbols, and the value of the description is de- 
termined by the character of the mental picture. 
This is true in the study of most subjects, but more 
especially in that of geography, history, literature, 
and reading. No matter how eloquent the descrip- 
tion, or how faultless and beautiful the composition, 
it has but little educative value unless there is in 
the mind of the reciter a fitting series of images. 
His belief that this is so, accounts for the frequency 
with which the writer has urged the importance of 
aiding the children to make correct mental pictures. 
For while it is not all of geograph}^ to be able to do 
so, it is essential to any marked success in pursuing" 
the subject. 

The pupils with whom we have labored thus far, 
ought to possess by this time sufficient power to in- 
terpret the map correctly, and to appreciate the de- 
scription. Much strength was acquired along these 
lines by accompanying the teacher on the imaginary 
excursions which he made to different parts of the 



116 Teaching Geography. 

home township, county, and state. Since then he 

has led them on longer trips. Together they have 

sailed on longer rivers, climbed higher 
Value of , . , , , , 

c „. -~ mountains, and traveled over more ex- 

Excursions. ' 

tensive plateaus They have witnessed 
the buying and selling which are constantly taking 
place at the great centers of commerce, and have 
broadened their knowledge by tracing the relation 
between the agricultural products offered for sale, 
and the climatic and other conditions of the coun- 
tries which produced them. 

Manufacturing centers have also arrested their 
attention, and they have stopped long enough to 
examine the lines of goods manufactured, and to dis- 
cover, if possible, the causes which led to their being 
manufactured at those particular places. The loca- 
tion may be due to abundant water power, nearness 
to inexhaustible supplies of fuel, and convenience 
to market; while the nature of the goods may be 
conditioned by the character of the raw materials 
most accessible. 

In the fields have been noticed men at work 
planting, cultivating, and harvesting. The manner 
of caring for some of the leading crops has been 
noticed, as well as the dependence of certain pro- 
ducts upon the climate and soil. On the higher pla 
teaus, where agriculture is unprofitable, cattle and 
sheep were seen in great numbers, being fattened for 
the market. And on plain, plateau, and mountain, 
men were observed digging into the bowels of the 
earth and bringing forth the minerals which add so 
much to the wealth of the nation. Having seen 
these things with their own eyes or those of the 



A Trip Down the Hudson Paver. 117 

teacher, they are prepared to make longer journeys 
in their own country and in foreign parts. The first 
lengthy excursion will be a trip down the Hudson 
river. 

The Appalachian mountains are peculiar in their 
formation. In places they consist of parallel ranges 
separated by fertile valleys. In others they are wide 
plateaus, dotted here and there by isolated peaks. 
While in still other places they form groups of steep 
and well-rounded mountains, in many of whose deep 
valleys are found bright and silvery lakes. 

The Adirondack mountains constitute one of 
these groups. A few years ago they were but little 
known; now they are among the most popular re- 
sorts in America. A few hours' ride takes one away 
from the hurry and bustle and noise of the metrop- 
olis of the western hemisphere to the solitude of 
the wilderness, where he will find strength for his 
tired body and rest for his fevered brain. 

From out the heart of these mountains flows 

one of the noblest rivers of the world, the lordly 

Hudson. It is true that it is surpassed in length 

and volume by the Amazon, Mississippi, and a score 

of others, and that it cannot boast of the ruined 

castles of robber-knights of the queenly 

„. Rhine. Yet it is doubtful if there is 

River. 

anywhere on earth three hundred and 
fifty miles of river that surpass the Hudson in the 
grandeur of its scenery, in the beauty and pathos 
of its legends, or in the deeds of daring and cruelty 
that have taken place along its banks. The dusky 
beau has sent his bark canoe skimming over its 
waters to meet his peerless one at the secluded 



118 Teaching Geography. 

trysting place. The Mohawk brave has noiselessly 
moved in the shadow of its overhanging" trees, stalk- 
ing the enemy of his tribe, as the hunter stalks the 
deer. And armies of freemen have put to rout the 
hosts of the oppressor within the sound of its rip- 
pling waters. 

Among the most famous Indian legends 

„. .of the Hudson is that of Minne-wa-wa, 

flinne=wa=wa! 

which is as follows:* "In the valley of 
the Hudson lived the Mohicans, who were the direct 
descendents of the Great Spirit. Minne-wa-wa, the 
pleasant voice, was the mother of their chief, who 
was called the Evening Star, and who had for his 
wife Wa-bun An-nung, the Morning Star; their son 
was named Osseo, Son of the Evening Star. 

"Soon after they settled in these pleasant hunt- 
ing grounds, Osseo and his father, while chasing 
the red deer among the blue mountains that lie to 
the west of the sparkling river, were overtaken by 
Mishe-mokwa, the great naked bear, and destroyed. 

"Wa-bun An-nung in her great sorrow wandered 
away from the village to the east, and was taken 
by the Puk-wud-jin-inies, the little vanishing men 
of the woods who are seen as night approaches, and 
suspended in the eastern sky, where she became the 
morning star. 

"Minne-wa-wa, bereft of all kindred, betook her- 
self to the western mountains to grieve in solitude 
near the spot from whence her loved ones had van- 
ished. As time, that great healer of human woes, 
somewhat assuaged her grief, her heart beat only 
for the subjects of her lost son, and her greatest de- 

*Taken from "Hudson River by Daylight," by permission. 



A Trip Down the Hudson River. 119 

sire was for the welfare of her people; and fearing 
lest some others of the tribe might be overtaken in 
the darkness b}^ Mishe-tnokwa, she gave to the little 
swamp-flies, Wah-wah-tay-see, the wee lamps which 
at night they flash here and there among" the bushes, 
that they might reveal the monster should he be 
lurking near to devour. But perceiving that the 
Wah-wah-tay-see would be of service only in the 
damp hollows which they frequented, and under 
the shadows of the dense trees and thick bushes, 
she climbed the mountain, and from the highest 
peak hung in the western sky the crescent bow of 
the lost Evening Star, to which she gave light and 
which became the moon. The Great Spirit, see- 
ing that this was good for her people, and that she 
of all others held their welfare in highest esteem, 
changed her into an immortal spirit and gave her 
the vast mountain for a lodge, in which was the 
great' treasury of storm and sunshine for the region 
of the Hudson; and he gave her also the dispensing of 
them for all time. Here she kept Day and Night 
shut up, letting out only one of them at a time. 
Monthly she came from her dwelling and hung the 
crescent new moon in the western sky, over the 
mountains, and so placed it as to signal to her peo- 
ple that she was about to send out the cooling 
showers to water the maize-fields and freshen the 
springs and parched herbage; for if she so hung it 
that the lower horn of the crescent was elevated 
sufficiently to hang upon it the bow and quiver of 
the hunter, then was the hunting at an end for a 
season and her people were to keep to their lodges 
and wisrwams. 



120 Teaching Geography. 

"After hanging - forth the signal that all might 
see it she would stand on the mountain top and shake 
from the folds of her mantle the drifting rain- clouds, 
and blow them over the valley with her breath. 
Sometimes she would weave them out of cobwebs, 
gossamer, and morning dew, and send them off, 
flake after flake, to float in the air and give light 
summer showers. When the people had done that 
which displeased her she would brew up black thun- 
der storms, and send down drenching rains to swell 
the streams and sweep everything away, and with 
them, the thunder of her voice and the lightning 
flashes from her eyes. 

"Thus did Minne-wa-wa become the guardian of 
the Mohican people, ever ministering to their good, 
sending the rain to moisten the maize fields, and 
water the hills that the herbage might grow and 
keep the game in abundance for them. Monthly she 
hung up the new moon, and as often cut up the 
old and scattered the little pieces throughout the 
heavens, and made of them the little stars whose 
lamps she lig'hted nightly." 

The Hudson river rises in Henderson lake at the 
foot of Mount Marcy, the highest peak of the Adi- 
rondacks. Its course at first is through a rough and 
rugged country. It works its way through dark and 
cavernous glens, whose beetling cliffs shut out the 
light of the sun. Its roar may be heard echoing 
among the mountains as it goes fretting and fuming 
through the rapids, or wrathfully throws itself over 
the rocky precipices. Occasionally it comes to a 
small level meadow through which it peacefully 
flows singing anthems of victory over the difncul- 



A Trip Down the Hudson River. 121 

ties it has overcome, and gathering new strength 
for the obstacles that may still be in its way. 

The river flows nearly south for quite a distance, 
when it is compelled by the hardness of the rock to 
take a northeasterly course until it reaches Sandy 
Hill, when it again turns to the south and continues 
in that direction to New York bay. 

Shortly before reaching Sandy Hill the river is 
divided by a small rocky island and dashes over a 
precipice sixty-three feet in height. Both the island 
and falls are made famous by Cooper in his Last of 
the Mohicans. In the rocky caverns of the island 
Duncan Heyward and his wards, Alice and Cora 
Munro, sought safety from their savage foes. It 
was here that Hawkeye and his two loyal Delawares 
fought the "Mingoes" until their ammunition was 
gone and then plunged beneath the seething waters 
and made their escape. And it was here that David 
Gamut, inspired by the noise of the cataract, poured 
out his soul in nasal melody. But alas! neither the 
singing of David nor the faithfulness of Duncan 
saved the party from falling into the hands of Magua, 
the Mingo chief. The village of Glen's Falls marks 
the spot at present. 

With its escape from this wild region, the Hud- 
son enters a more level country and its career for 
the rest of its course is comparatively peaceful. But 
while escaping the turbulance of nature, it has wit- 
nessed many of the turmoils of men, both savage and 
civilized. There is hardly a foot of land along its 
banks from Sandy Hill to New York bay that has 
not been fought over by armed men; and the same 
may be said of its principal tributaries. Hurons, 



122 Teaching Geography. 

Mohawks, Dutch, English, and Americans have dyed 
the water with their blood and enriched the soil with 
their bodies. The war whoop of the Indian, the 
slogan of the Highlander, and the hearty hurrah of 
the English and Americans have reverberated from 
its cliffs; but heedless of them all it has kept on its 
way, anxious only to find repose in the arms of its 
great mother, the ocean. 

The village of Port Edward is a short distance 
below the great bend. The portage from here to 
Lake George was the most dangerous part of the 
route to Canada. The village figures conspicuously 
in the story of Burgoyne's invasion. 

Bemis Heights stretch along the west bank of the 
Hudson from opposite Fort Edward to the Mohawk 
river. The altitude of these heights is not great at 
any point, and in some places they are slightly un- 
dulating plains. Here were fought two important 
battles of the Revolutionary War. In one of them 
Benedict Arnold won considerable renown, although 
Gates received the official credit. The last of these 
battles is vividly portrayed by the wife of a Hessian 
general who was in the service of the English. She 
gives great credit to the Americans, not only for 
their bravery in battle, but also for their chivalric 
conduct in not firing on her servant maids who sup- 
plied the wounded British with water from the river. 
The report is found in Lossing s Field- Book of the Revo- 
lution, also in Washington and His Country. It is well 
worth reading. 

About twelve miles west of the battle 

„ ar . field is the village of Saratoga Springs. 

Springs. fe & i & 

This is one of the most noted watering- 



A Trip Doion the Hudson River. 123 

places in America. In the fashionable season its 

twenty or more hotels, with many private boarding 

houses, are filled to overflowing- with those in quest 

of health and pleasure. Its thirty-odd medicinal 

spring's are patronized by those who are sick, or 

think they are; but for most the great attractions 

are the costly equipages and brilliant costumes that 

may be witnessed on its streets, and the gay balls 

and parties that may be attended at night. The 

natural scenery in the immediate vicinity is not very 

attractive. The "sights" have been produced by 

man's labor and skill. August is the best time to 

visit Saratoga, if one desires to see it in its glory. 

The Mohawk is the chief tributary of 

n . the Hudson. It flows through one of 

River. fe 

the principal depressions of the Appa- 
lachians. In colonial times it formed one of the 
leading routes to Canada, there being but a short 
and easy portage from its headwaters to those of 
the Oswego. It was then the dark and bloody 
river, being guarded by the terrible Mohawks, the 
bravest and most bloodthirsty of savages. Now it 
is a helpful servant of civilization. Its rapids and 
falls are utilized in turning the wheels of industry; 
its fertile valley is occupied by peaceful farms, 
thrifty towns, and well-ordered cities. Instead of 
the war whoop of the savage is heard the whistle of 
the locomotive and factory, and the site of the "long 
house" of the aborigines is occupied by the church 
and the schoolhouse, harbingers of good to man. 
And as if to seal the conversion of the river to the 
service of humanity, along its banks extends the 
Erie canal, a messenger of peace between the sea- 
board and the interior. 



124 Teaching Geography. 

Schenectady is situated on the Mohawk river and 
the Erie canal. The very name causes the student 
of history to shudder as he thinks of the stockaded 
villag'e, the faithless sentinels, and the defenceless 
inhabitants wakened from their sleep to see, by the 
light of their burning homes, the ruthless savages 
standing over them brandishing toma- 
y* h aw ks an d scalping knives. The hor- 
rors of the flight to Albany through the snow, 
barefoot and scantily clad, was equaled on^ by the 
plight of those carried captive to Canada. Happily 
the town is now an important manufacturing center, 
and its people are safe from the perils which sur- 
rounded their ancestors. 

Troy, the largest manufacturing city in the val- 
ley of the Hudson, except New York, is situated on 
the east bank of the river, on an alluvial plain. Its 
principal manufactures are iron, steel, stoves, rail- 
road cars, etc. Being at the head of navigation, 
and having a number of railroads, it is also largely 
engaged in commerce. It is the seat of the Rens- 
selaer Polytechnic Institute, and across the river 
is the Watervliet national arsenal in which are made 
large cannon. The tide ascends to Troy. 

Albany, on the west bank, is the capital of the 
state of New York. It is the eastern terminus of 
the Erie canal, and is connected with Lake Cham- 
plain by the Champlain canal. Several lines of 
palatial steamboats make regular trips 
Albany. between Albany and New York. In 

summer they are crowded with pleasure seekers 
who never tire of the magnificent scenery which 
the trip reveals to them. The city has several rail- 



A Trip Doiun the Hudson River. 125 

roads which with its water facilities make it an im- 
portant commercial center. It is also extensively 
engaged in commerce. 

We leave the river for a time at Catskill 

„ " . . Landing, on the west bank, and reach 

Mountains. fe ' ' 

the mountains by railroad. On arrival 
we hasten up the rocky valley that we may witness 
Rip Van Winkle assist his taciturn companion in 
carrying the heavy keg. If there is a thunder storm 
we may hear the noise of the balls, as they are rolled 
by the crew of the Half Moon, long before we reach 
the amphitheater. A motley crowd they are and 
freely do they partake of the contents of the keg. 
But having Rip's sad fate in remembrance, we keep 
at a safe distance from the flagon. Becoming tired 
of the play we ascend one of the highest peaks, and 
sitting by the side of Leather Stocking, or Hawkeye, 
as we called him elsewhere, we listen to his marvel- 
lous tales of Indian cruelty and the white man's 
cupidity. 

Leaving the past, however, and addressing our- 
selves to the present, we soon realize that we are in 
a region rich in scenic grandeur. Mountain peaks, 
plateaus, and deep-furrowed valleys surround us on 
all sides. Deep, placid lakes mirror the beauty of 
their wooded margins, doubling our pleasure. Brisk, 
refreshing breezes fan our brows, and our ears are 
delighted by the music of many streams as they go 
dancing over their rocky beds and between their 
grassy banks, breaking out into a joyful chorus, 
loud and deep, as they descend to the plain. The 
most noted is Kaaterskill creek which plunges down 
three hundred feet at one leap. 



126 Teaching Geography. 

From our point of observation we can see the 
Adirondacks to the north, with their tops reaching 
to the heavens. Between lies the valley of the 
Mohawk in which the river appears like a ribbon of 
silver. 

Turning - to the east, the broad valley of the Hud- 
son is spread out before us. Cities and towns dot 
the landscape. The clouds of smoke which rise 
above them tell of labor, inventive genius, and proud 
achievement; while the spires that glisten in the 
sunlight reveal their hopes when life's labor is 
ended. 

Thrifty and well kept farms may be seen on both 
sides of the river. The elegant residences and ca- 
pacious barns show that the tillers of the soil are 
well repaid for their labor. Groves of hemlock, 
maple, and oak give variety to the scene; and the 
herds of cattle, droves of horses, and flocks of sheep 
in the carefully fenced pastures add life and mo- 
tion. The Hudson itself flows by at a distance of 
seven miles from the base of the mountains, carry- 
ing on its bosom the commerce of an empire. All 
sorts of craft, from the plebeian canal boat to the 
aristocratic steamer equaling in its appointments 
the palace of a king, ceaselessly plow its waters; 
while on its banks may still be seen many of the 
stately mansions built by the Dutch Patroons, al- 
ternating with the modern villas of merchant princes. 
For ninety miles up and down the valley and east 
to the Green mountains and Berkshire hills, this en- 
chanting panorama is unfolded to our gaze. On the 
south it is limited by the Highlands. 



A Trip Down the Hudson Ewer. 127 

The view to the west is of a more quiet nature, 
yet it is not without beauty. The broad, fertile val- 
leys of the Delaware and Susquehanna rivers appear 
in the distance. Signs of comfort, if not of opulence, 
are seen in the substantial homes that greet our 
eyes. Brawling" cataracts and rocky crags with 
their weird and picturesque scenery are absent, but 
tokens of peace and plenty are everywhere visible. 

Returning to the Hudson, we soon reach King- 
ston, on the west bank. This is the eastern termi- 
nus of the Delaware and Hudson canal, which is 
used chiefly in conveying coal from the anthracite 
regions "of Pennsylvania to New York city. 

A short distance farther on is found Poughkeepsie, 
an important manufacturing center. It is especially 
noted, however, for its educational institutions, of 
which Vassar College, for young ladies, is the prin- 
cipal one. The beauty and boldness of the great 
cantilever bridge spanning the river at this point is 
worthy of our admiration. 

In passing by Newburg, we are pleased with its 
very attractive appearance. It was here that Wash- 
ington, at the close of the war, by his energy and 
prudence saved his country from a possible revolt 
of the army. Across the river is Pishkill, not far 
from which were the haunts of Cooper's "Spy." 

As we approach the Highlands, we no- 
H" hla d ^ ce ^ na -t tt> e river is narrowing and the 

velocity of its current increasing'. We 
enter the enchanted region between two hig"h rock} 7 
piles that stand as grim sentinels guarding the 
passage. The one on the west is Storm King. It 



128 Teaching Geography. 

looks solemnly across at Breakneck to see if it is 
attending" to its duty. 

We have no trouble in convincing - these guards 
that we are friends, who simply wish to view the 
treasures entrusted to their custody. The scenery 
on both sides of the river is beautiful, grand, ma- 
jestic. Rock rises above rock, cliff above cliff, and 
mountain above mountain. While opening back 
from the river are many narrow valleys which serve 
to make the massiveness of the mountains all the 
more impressive. Several of the mountains look 
upon the river with lowering brows, as if displeased 
with it for bringing strangers to gaze upon their 
secrets. Some of them are even so angry that they 
run out into the water determined to stop its pass- 
age. It moves on, however, and moving with it, we 
arrive at West Point. 

A visit to the "Point'" is apt to recall many events 
in the history of the nation. It was here that Ar- 
nold, the traitor, tried to undo all that Arnold, the 
patriot, had done. The names of Wash- 
01 ' ington, Kosciusko, and Lafayette are 
associated with the place, and are held in precious 
remembrance by the young men who are here being 
educated to follow in their footsteps. 

The military academy occupies a plateau one 
hundred and eighty-eight feet above the river. It 
is generally conceded to be one of the best schools 
of its kind in the world. The careers of Grant, Sher- 
man, Sheridan, and of many other great captains, 
bear witness to the excellence of the training re- 
ceived here. 

We stay at West Point long enough to visit the 
cadet barracks, the library, the riding school, battle 



A Trip Down the Hudson River. 129 

monument, and "Lover's Walk." We see the cadets 
on dress parade, and visit mess hall, later, when 
they are partaking" of their evening" meal. They are 
a bright, vigorous, and jolly body of young men, 
and they take pains to make the visitor's stay among 
them as pleasant as possible. Unfortunately our 
time was limited, so we had to say good-bye to these 
future heroes, and continue on our way. 

We leave the Highlands, as we entered them, be- 
tween two peaks; "for the Dunderburg and Manito 
stand guard at the south, rearing their heads sky- 
ward more than one thousand feet. " In passing 
Stony Point, we think of General Wayne and of his 
heroic capture of the fort. 

It is not difficult at this juucture to turn our 
thoughts from war to peace, as the river spreads 
out into the broad, quiet expanse known generally 
as Haverstraw bay, but whose lower part is locally 
designated, the Tappan Zee. The shores consist 
no longer of mountain walls, but in many places, 
the land slopes down to the water's edge. And 
while there are occasional cliffs, the prevailing char, 
acteristic of the scenery is its tranquility. Every 
point of vantage is occupied by a beautiful villa 
whose surroundings are as pleasing as money and 
skill can make them. Farms stretch back from the 
river on either side, but the growing crops do not in- 
dicate fertility of soil. 

The Croton river comes in from the east. From 
the upper valley of this stream New York city is 
supplied with water by means of an aqueduct forty 
miles long. 

Tappan is on the west bank of the Hudson. It 
was here that Major Andre, the British sp}% was 



130 Teaching Geograghy. 

tried by court martial and executed. He was cap- 
tured east of the river, just across from the village. 

Tarrytown is the next point at which we stop, 
and here we disembark for the present. The town 
"is delightfully situated on an elevated plateau, 
overlooking the wide expanse of the Tappan Zee 
and the surrounding country for many miles." We 
do not land, however, simply to see the town; we 
must visit "Sleepy Hollow," which is quite near. 
The brook still glides through the little valley mur- 
muring as it did when Ichabod Crane, 

1 _ I e ,t Py stretched upon its bank, had such ec- 

Hollow. L 

static visions of the wealth of Baltus 

Van Tassel and of the plumpness of blooming Kat- 

rina, all of which he hoped would soon be his. 

We wander in the churchyard looking for the 
grave of the unfortunate Hessian but we find it not. 
We are shown the very spot by the brook where 
was found Ichabod's hat and the pumpkin. Who 
can tell how the pumpkin came to be in that partic- 
ular place on that awful occasion? As we are trying 
to solve the mystery, we can almost hear Gunpowder 
tearing down the road, closely followed by the head- 
less horseman. That pumpkin, so harmless, seem- 
ingly, brought ruin and destruction upon the hopes 
of the schoolmaster. We can readily imagine the 
feelings of Brom Bones when he heard of his rival's 
mishap. 

Returning to the river once more, we soon come 
in sight of "Sunnyside" cottage, the home of Wash- 
ington Irving. Remembering the kind, genial na- 
ture of him who made it famous, and acknowledging 



A Trip Down the Hudson River. 131 

our indebtedness to him for many an hour of pleas- 
ure and profit, we reverently salute it, and look 
upon it with uncovered heads as it is rapidly hidden 
from sight by a dense growth of trees and shrubbery. 

The Palisades is a name applied to a long" per- 
pendicular wall that extends for twenty miles along 
the west side of the Hudson, terminating on the 
south at Fort Lee. They form the river edge of a 
plateau about three-quarters of a mile wide, and 
from one hundred to five hundred feet high. In 
many places the face of the cliff presents a columnar 
appearance. The opposite, low, verdant shore af- 
fords a varied and charming picture from the Palis- 
ades; while to the south the eye reaches to the 
metropolis and its crowded bay. 

The towns and villages on the east bank follow 
each other in rapid succession. No sooner do we 
pass one than we come in sight of another. We do 
not land at any of them, as we desire to reach the 
great city by daylight, and the sun will soon sink 
below the horizon. Spuyten Duy vel creek is passed. 
The river is well nigh covered with boats of all de- 
scriptions. We carefully pick our way among them, 
and soon are in front of Riverside park. Here we 
rest on our oars a short time and think of the hero 
whose tomb is in plain view. The spot is a lovely 
one. The view up and down the river cannot be 
surpassed. Long may it be before the American 
passer-by forgets to look with reverence upon the 
last resting place of the immortal Grant. 

We land at the 22nd Street pier, and are driven 
to our hotel, feeling well repaid for our trip down 
the Hudson. 



132 Teaching Geography. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



A TRIP DOWN THE RHINE RIVER. 

The drainage of at least 150 glaciers unite to 
form the headwaters of the Rhine river. The prin- 
cipal stream rises near Mt. St. Gothard in an icy- 
cave, amidst a mass of rocks. It flows to the north- 
east for some distance, between frowning - walls and 
in dark gorges, and then forces its way northward 
through several mountain ranges, until it reaches 
the peaceful waters of Lake Constance. The de- 
scent is so rapid in the upper part of its course that 
we can not use our canoe. We must carry it the 
best we can, for were we to launch it, it would soon 
be dashed to pieces in the rapids through 

r.i.- which the water rushes, swirling and 

Rhine. ' ° 

foaming. If we look up the high, nar- 
row valleys that open out on either side, w T e shall 
see small huts built under the shelter of the cliffs. 
These are occupied by hardy mountaineers who 
derive much of their livelihood from their small 
flocks of goats. Every patch of grass is utilized. 
In some instances the herdsman may be seen carry- 
ing the goats on his back to some little grassy 
plateau which they can not reach otherwise. Farther 
down the valley the mountains recede from the 
river, and cattle are seen grazing along its banks. 
Small villages appear, whose inhabitants cultivate 
a few of the hardier grains and vegetables. The 
houses are small, rudely built, and scantily fur- 
bished. Yet the people are happy, if we may judge 



A Trip Down the Rhine River. 133 

by the songs and shouts of merriment which we 
hear so frequently. 

For some distance before reaching" Lake 
eop e. c ons t.ance ^ ne river is on the boundary 
between Austria and Switzerland, and flows through 
a great alluvial plain which is supposed to be a 
filled-up lake basin. The Rhine is now a well-be- 
haved river, and is navigable for small boats and 
rafts. We embark in our canoe, and as we are borne 
along by the current we notice thrifty towns, care- 
fully tilled fields, and rich meadow lands. The farms 
are small, and so the tillers are able to live in ham- 
lets, or small villages. Isolated farm houses are 
rare. A village consists of a row of one-story houses 
on one or both sides of the road. It is rarely that 
one of them has more than one room, although a few 
of the more pretentious have two. But whether one 
room or two, they usually shelter the domestic ani- 
mals, as well as their owners. The farming imple- 
ments are very primitive. The spade, the hoe, the 
sickle, the scythe, and the hand-rake are still the main 
reliance. The horse and ox do but little of the work; 
woman is the more common beast of burden. She 
carries the fertilizer from before the house and 
spreads it on the land, often with her hands. In 
the autumn she carries the hay and grain from the 
field and stores them away in the rude loft over- 
head, or stacks them nearby. Her husband, brother, 
or employer may help her get the burden on her 
back, but he will not carry it, as he considers it un- 
manly to do so. Everywhere in Europe the lot of 
the peasant woman is a hard one. Her labors are 
many and arduous, and her joys are few. 



134 Teaching Geography. 



Lake 
Constance 



Austria, Germany, and Switzerland 
border on Lake Constance. The moun- 
tains in many places come close to the 
lake, and their shadows are cast upon its waters by 
the setting" sun. Quaint-looking" towns, surrounded 
by large apple orchards, dot its shores. Their nar- 
row, crooked streets, peculiar architecture, and 
"mild flavor of decay'' attract our attention, and 
lead us to land at one of them. We are cordially 
welcomed by guides, hotel-keepers, merchants, and 
others who hope to derive profit from our presence. 
After rambling through a few of the principal 
streets, and purchasing a few souvenirs of our visit, 
we again embark and float lazily down the lake. 
The famous old city of Constance soon appears in 
sight, and we stop long enough to admire its pictur- 
esque architecture, and magnificent cathedral, and 
to observe that the country around it is devoted 
largely to market gardening, producing such fruits 
and vegetables as are produced in Illinois. 

Prom Lake Constance the river flows 
The 

. r,. nearlv west to Schaffhausen, where "it 

Aar River. - ' 

is precipitated over a ledge of rock, in 
three leaps, fifty or sixty feet in height," and then 
moves on calmly and quietly amid green woods, and 
in sight of many villages. We notice where the Aar 
river comes in, and wish we had time to ascend its 
waters, view its tributary lakes, and climb some of 
the mountains which look down upon it in solemn 
grandeur. We must be content, however, with re- 
calling what the geographies say about it. From 
them we learn that the Aar rises near Mt. St. Goth- 
ard, flows northwest for about half its course, and 



A Trip Down the Rhine River. 135 

is then turned to the northeast by the Jura moun- 
tains. From the west it receives the waters of Lake 
Neufchatel, on which is a city of the same name; 
and from the east come in the waters of lakes Zurich 
and Lucerne. These lakes, with many others, are 
visited every year by thousands of tourists who are 
charmed with the scenery of Switzerland. Even the 
barren and frowning mountains, with their dark de- 
files and forbidding" chasms, are a source of revenue 
to the inhabitants. The income thus derived, added 
to the scant returns from their flocks and fields, 
from wood carving", and the manufactures of cotton, 
silk, tobacco, watches, and musical instruments, 
enables them to live in comparative comfort. Berne, 
the capital, is on the Aar, while Lucerne and Zurich 
are on lakes of the same name. 

On returning to the Rhine, we continue our west- 
erly course until we reach Basle, just as the river is 
about to quit the boundary between Germany and 
Switzerland, and turn to the north. The city is sit- 
uated upon a terrace at the great elbow of the Rhine 
and is noted for its manufactures of cotton, silk, 
tobacco, chemical products, and ribbons. It is the 
leading commercial center of the country, its posi- 
tion with regard to France and Germany insuring it 
a large trade. Indications of peace and prosperity 
are visible on every hand. 

As we descend the river from Basle we 
The Middle , ,, ,,, 

p. . are passing nearly through the center 

of a great valley once occupied, it is be- 
lieved, by an inland lake. Looking to the west 
across Alsace, we see the Vosges mountains forming 
the rim of the valley in that direction; on the east 



136 Teaching Geography. 

the Black Forest mountains form the rim. The land 
near the river is low and flat, but farther back the 
surface is undulating", being" influenced by ramifica- 
tions from the mountains. We can see that it is 
carefully tilled. On the lowland near the river, 
wheat, oats, rye, barley, tobacco, hops, and the com- 
mon fruits and vegetables are cultivated and yield 
abundantly, as the soil is enriched with manures and 
commercial fertilizers. The foothills are devoted to 
the culture of the vine, and so are the slopes of the 
mountains, wherever they can be terraced. We no- 
tice the general absence of fences, and on inquiring, 
learn that the land is too valuable to be wasted on 
fences or hedges, as boundary stones answer the 
purpose to the entire satisfaction of the people. 

Many hamlets and villages are seen. They are 
occupied almost entirely by the tillers of the soil, 
and have no commerce or manufacturers. These in- 
dustries are confined to the cities and towns. In 
some places the peasants are at work near enough 
to the river for us to notice their dress. Many of 
both sexes are barefooted; others wear wooden shoes 
and a very few, leather ones. Some of the men 
wear trousers, but many may be seen with knee 
breeches. The women wear a loose jacket or waist 
over very short skirts, and thick woolen stockings, 
provided they wear shoes. If they go without, they 
wear soleless stockings. The costumes usually 
change with the locality, each duchy or province 
having a costume peculiar to itself. 

The first city of importance at which we arrive 
is Strasburg, the capital of Alsace, situated a short 
distance from the river on a small tributary. The 



A Trip Doivn the Rhine River. 137 

industrial importance of this city is over-shadowed 
by its military renown. It is encircled by a net- 
work of fortifications, and each year 
adds to their strength. Our interest 
centers in the famous cathedral, with its tower and 
wonderful clock. Farther down, Mannheim appears 
at the junction of the Neckar river with the Rhine. 
It is a busy commercial hive, and standing", as it does, 
at the head of navigation for the larger class of river 
boats, its harbor is at all times crowded with vessels. 
On the Neckar, about twelve from Mannheim, is 
Heidelberg which claims to be the most beautiful 
town of all Germany. It is noted for its delightful 
surroundings, its old castle, and its university. 
Could we ascend the Neckar, we should find its 
source in the Black Forest mountains, and might 
be able to see the charcoal burners at their work. 
Descending the Rhine from Mannheim, we soon 
arrive at the old city of Worms, now back quite a 
distance from the river and noted in history as the 
place where Martin Luther appeared before the im 
perial diet to answer for his heresy. The Main 
river comes in on the right where the Rhine makes a 
sudden bend to the west. On it is Frankfort, about 
twenty miles from its mouth. This city is "one of 
the great money marts of Europe," being the head 
quarters of the Rothschilds. To scholars it is of in- 
terest chiefly as being the birthplace of Goethe. 
Opposite the mouth of the Main is Mayence, strongly 
fortified and defending one of the most important 
passes over the Rhine. The bakeries in this city 
are said to be on a scale sufficient to supply the 
daily wants of 500,000 men. Its principal trade is 



138 Teaching Geography. 

in wine, grain, and wood. As we pass by the city 
we are reminded that here was born Gutenberg", the 
inventor of printing, and that here dwelt the hard- 
hearted Bishop Hatto who was punished in the 
' 'Mouse Tower" for his cruelty. The island on which 
stands the famous tower is near Bingen. In justice 
to the memory of the bishop let us hasten to say for 
aught that is known he was a good man, and was 
not eaten up by rats and mice. 

"I saw the blue Rhine sweep along, — I heard, or seemed to 
hear, 

The German songs we used to sing in chorus sweet and clear; 

And down the pleasant river, and up the slanting hill, 

The echoing chorus sounded through the evening calm 
and still; 

And her glad blue eyes were on me, as we passed with 
friendly talk, 

Down many a path beloved of yore, and well -remem- 
bered walk! 

And her little hand lay lightly, confidingly in mine, — 

But we meet no more at Bingen, — loved Bingen on the 
Rhine." 

The village of Bingen stands on the left 
ngen. bank of the river, and the hillsides back 

of it are still covered with vineyards as in the day 
when the dying soldier spoke of it so fondly. Here 
the river turns to the north, and forces its way 
through the mountains. From Bingen to Coblentz 
the scenery is well-nigh beyond description. "The 
rock- walls of the river; the continuous villages, the 
quaint churches amid vineyards and cherry orch- 
ards, the mossy meadows about the mountains, the 
white-kerchiefed villagers, present so many varied 
and delightful objects, that the eye feasts on beauty, 



A Trip Down the Rhine Elver. 139 

and wonders expectantly at what the next turn of 

the river will reveal." The banks are lined with 

castles, villages, and ruins. In times past "every 

hill had its castle, and every crag" its gray tower." 

Eacli old castle has its legends of robbery and 

rapine. River, shop, and farm were the prey of the 

robber-knights of the middle ages. Now all is 

changed. Tbe knight is gone, the castle is in ruins, 

and German industry is protected by the strong arm 

of the law. The memories of knights and castles 

remain only as a source of inspiration to the poet 

and the story-teller. 

The most famous leg"end of the Rhine is 
The Lorelei 

that of the Lorelei, "the fairest of the 

fair," who sat on a bold promontory and by her 
magic music lured sailors to destruction in the rapids 
at the foot of the precipice. This interesting spot is 
on the right bank of the river and about midway be- 
tween Bingen and Coblentz. As we pass by we 
listen for the echo of the cries of her victims, but it 
comes not, although it was said to be repeated fif- 
teen times. Instead we hear the songs of the rafts- 
men as they bend to their long, sweeping oars; for 
enormous rafts form one of the sights of this classic 
river. We pass many of them on their way to the 
manufacturing districts. The logs are cut farther 
up the mountains, and floated down the mountain 
streams to the Rhine where they are fastened to 
gether. Each raft is a floating village. On it are 
erected rows of huts in which the two or three hun- 
dred persons on board eat and sleep. In addition, 
it often carries poultry, sheep, and a few cows, to 
furnish the people with a part of their food. 



140 Teaching Geoqraphy. 

Coblentz is situated at the confluence of the Mo- 
selle and Rhine. It is surrounded by sterile, thinly 
peopled hills, and possesses few resources of wealth. 
On the opposite bank of the Rhine is the strong 
fortress of Ehrenbreitstein, which we are not per- 
mitted to enter. The military character of Coblentz 
overshadowsand cripples its industrial development, 
and there is but little in the city that we care to see. 
The sources of the Moselle are in the 
Vosges mountains, and considerable of 
its course is in France. On it is the strongly forti- 
fied city of Metz, which is now one of Germany's 
strong military out-posts. 

From Coblentz the Rhine flows for about ten miles 
through a narrow plain which is semi-circled by 
mountains. It then enters a second defile which is 
less wild than that of Bingen. The Seven Moun- 
tains are on the right. Their sides slope gradually 
to the river, and are covered with vineyards, hop- 
3^ards, and apple and cherry orchards. Drachenfels, 
ten miles southeast of Bonn, is the most famous of 
the Seven Mountains. 

"The castled crag of Drachenfels 
Frowns o'er the wide and winding Rhine, 
Whose breast of waters broadly swells 
Between the banks which bear the vine." 

We have passed through the middle Rhine, the 
Rhine of legend and song, and soon reach Bonn 
on the outskirts of the great alluvial plain of Ger- 
many. It marks the northern limit of the vine, and 
is noted for its university and for the statue of 
Beethoven, who was a native of the place. 

Cologne is the next city of importance. 

It is the largest city of Rhenish Prussia, 



A Trip Doivn the Rhine River. 141 

and has an extensive commerce both by river and 
rail. We pay but little attention to its manufacture 
of eau cle Cologne, as probably more of the "genuine 
article" is manufactured in Chicago than in Cologne. 
But we visit its great cathedral and admire its beauty. 
We are shown the skulls of the three wise men of the 
East, who came to visit the Savior. The sexton is 
so sure that these are the wise Asiatic skulls, or 
rather the skulls of the wise Asiatics, that we ex- 
press no doubt as to the truthfulness of his story. 
It is well that we do not, as a greater surprise is 
awaiting us. In Saint Ursula's church we are shown 
not only the skulls but also the rest of the bones of 
the 11,000 virgins who were slaughtered here by the 
Huns on their return from Rome. We pay the sex- 
ton his fee, feeling that he has earned it. 

Leaving the presence of the dead we saunter 
back to the hotel and order dinner. It is served to 
us in a pleasant garden by the side of the river. 
Here we find a number of people eating, drinking, 
smoking, and chatting, each enjoying himself in ihe 
manner which best suits his taste. This decidedly 
German scene, supplemented by the swiftly flowing 
river with its steamers purring hither and thither, 
and boats and barges passing to and fro, awakens 
pleasanter thoughts than did the bony fragments of 
wise men and virgins. 

After dinner we travel by railroad to Aachen 
(Aix-la-Chapelle), which is nearly due west from Co- 
logne, and close to the Belgian frontier. 
Ch " The hot, sulphur springs of this place 

so pleased Charlemagne that he made it 
the capital of his empire. His marble palace has 
disappeared, but the chapel in which he worshiped, 



142 Teaching Geography. 

and in which he was buried still exists as a part of 
the cathedral. The rheumatic and the gouty visit 
the springs in larg'e numbers annually, but the pros- 
perity of the city is due mainly to its coal, lead, 
and zinc mines, and to its manufacture of woolen 
cloth, shawls, silks, leather, etc. Having visited 
the places of interest around the springs, we hasten 
back to the river, and again embark in our canoe. 

From Cologne to the North Sea, the 
The Lower ,-,, . , , , .-. , . -. 

„.. Klnne passes through a low, level coun- 

try, and the current becomes more and 
more sluggish. For the rest of its course in Ger- 
many, the scenery is uninteresting to the pleasure 
seeker; but to those who delight in the prosperity 
of the people, there is much to please. Well-tilled 
fields, and sleek herds, are seen in all directions, 
while at every bend in the river there is a thrifty 
town, which is a commercial center for the country 
back of it. Coal and iron are found in abundance, 
and, as a consequence, furnaces, rolling mills, cot- 
ton factories, silk factories, etc., are in nearly every 
town. Perhaps, the town in which governments are 
most interested is Essen, northeast of Dusseldorf. 
Here are manufactured the great Krupp g'uns. The 
guns, however, form but a small part of the products 
of Krupp's extensive establishment, which employs 
20,000 men. 

We now enter Holland, and the Rhine soon sepa- 
rates into several sluggish channels, which find 
their way between strong embankments to the North 
Sea. Following the usual custom of tourists, we 
spend no time in describing the Dutch Rhine, but 
proceed to Amsterdam, from which we take steamer 
to New York, and from there hasten to our homes. 



A Trip to Ceylon and India. 143 



CHAPTER XV. 



A TRIP TO CEYLON AND INDIA. 

On the morning" of October 3, 18 — , we came in 

sight of the island of Ceylon. The voyage from 

New York by way of the Suez Canal 
Ceylon. r^, „ ,, 

was a prosperous one. The first three 

days we spent in our state room, without any desire 
to see or to be seen. What took place there it is not 
necessary to relate farther than that Neptune was in- 
exorable. On the afternoon of the fifth day we were 
able to go on deck and enjoy the congratulations of 
our friends, and by the eighth day we felt that we 
were able-bodied seamen. 

We had read about Ceylon, its flora and fauna, 
its people with their customs and costumes, and 
were as we believed fairly well prepared to appre- 
ciate the beauty of the island, — and it is very beau- 
tiful. As we sailed south along the western coast, 
our expectations were more than realized. The 
south and west coasts are low and fringed with the 
cocoanut tree, which grows down on the water's 
edge. This tree is as valuable to the Cingalese as 
the reindeer is to the people of Lapland. It fur- 
nishes them with food, drink, clothing, and houses, 
and enters largely into their few simple arts and 
manufactures. 

The east coast of the island is high and precip- 
itous, and lacks the rich verdue of the south and 



144 Teaching Geography. 

west. It has no good harbor. Indeed there is no 
good natural harbor on the island. Point de Galle 
to which our ship is bound, is the principal stopping 
place for foreign vessels;* but its harbor is neither 
safe nor commodious. The British government is 
planning to build artificial harbors on both east and 
west coasts. 

The anchor is dropped some distance from the 
shore and the Rosalind is soon surrounded by 
swarms of nondescript little crafts whose dusky oc- 
cupants by shouts and gestures make known their 
willingness to serve us — for a consideration. The 
captain tells us that we shall have time to land and 
learn considerable about the island, while he is un- 
loading a part of his cargo and taking on a large 
quantity of coffee and timber for Calcutta. So we 
enter one of the small boats and are soon safely 
landed. We hasten to the residence of the Ameri- 
can consul, who kindly interests himself in our be- 
half, and provides us with six coolies who are to act 
as guides, and carry such supplies as we shall need. 
They soon appear, prepared for the journey, but to 
our disgust our official friend has hired six women 
instead of six men, as we directed. We objected to 
his choice, but he told us plainly that we must take 
these or go without any. After enjoying our look 
of dismay for a short time, he laughed heartily and 
made some remark about the emerald hue of Ireland, 
but we could not see that the vegetation of Ireland 
had any bearing on the case in hand. The consul at 
length assured us that these were all men, and there 
was not a woman among them. He frankly ad- 

*Ooloml)o on the west coast is now the capital and principal seaport 



A Trip to Ceylon and India. 145 

mittecl that our mistake was a natural one, as the 
men and women are about of the same size, and dress 
alike. The principal garment, and often the only one, 
is a long - , loose gown. And as both sexes wear their 
hair long, the men doing theirs up with combs, for- 
eigners on their first visit usually mistake the men 
for the women. 

Our visit to the interior, brief as it necessarily 
was, proved a profitable one. The island is quite 
mountainous in the south, while in the north it is 
level or undulating. Lying so near the equator, and 
being well watered, Ce}don is covered with a rich 
growth of vegetation. The cocoanut palm, already 
mentioned, is the most valuable of the trees, but 
large quantities of ebony, satinwood, and tamarind 
are exported annually. Plantations of nutmeg trees 
are carefully cultivated. The tree is about as large 
as a medium-sized apple tree. The cinnamon tree 
also flourishes here, as does the beech-like tree that 
bears the bread-fruit. The fruit does not grow 
among the branches, but out of the side of the trunk. 
Coffee is cultivated extensively, but rice is the prin- 
cipal agricultural product and the staple food of the 
people. Millet, sugar cane, tea, pepper, pineapples, 
and tobacco are also produced and exported in con- 
siderable quantities 

The natives live in villages which are over-shad- 
owed by luxuriant woods. Their houses are con- 
structed mainly of light bamboo poles, and roofed 
with the leaves of the palm. Each is surrounded 
by a small garden fenced in by palm leaves, or by 
hedges of flowers. Flowers are found growing in 
great profusion everywhere and at all seasons. 



146 Teaching Geography. 

Wherever we go they greet us with their beauty and 
fragrance. In religion, nearly all of the people are 
Buddhists. Their temples are usually built on high, 
picturesque situations, and surrounded by pleasant 
grounds. The priests reside in the temples, where 
they instruct the youth in the mysteries of their re- 
ligion. They are celibates and mendicants, and 
every morning some of them may be seen going to 
the village to receive offerings of rice, spices, etc. 

A few precious stones are found in some districts, 
but none of any considerable value. We were told 
by our coolies that plumbago, quicksilver, and iron 
exist in great quantities. This may be so. Our de- 
sire to see as much of the island as possible kept us 
from investigating the geological formation very 
closely, and we saw no indications of any of these 
minerals. The pearl fisheries, mainly on the west 
coast, are very valuable. 

We saw no large animals on our journey, but we 
were told that the elephant, bear, panther, and buf- 
falo are found among the mountains. The buffalo 
is tamed by the people and used in plowing their 
land. Monkeys were seen frequently and in large 
troops. They were not glad to see us. They ex- 
pressed their feelings in language more forcible 
than phonetic, and emphasized their remarks by 
dropping sticks and nuts from the treetops upon 
our heads. 

All birds that we saw had very gay plumage, 
but we did not hear one sing in all the time we were 
on the island. Poisonous snakes are numerous, the 
principal one being the "anaconda, "twenty or thirty 
feet lonjjf. Crocodiles inhabit the rivers and lakes, 



A Trip to Ceylon and India. 147 

and are sometimes found in the artificial reservoirs 
in which are stored the surplus waters of the rainy 
seasons, of which there are two. The joyous, per- 
sistent mosquito impressed us most deeply of all the 
animals of Ceylon. Its affability and industry will 
not soon be forgotten. 

The time which our captain had fixed for his de- 
parture from Point de Galle being near at hand, we 
returned to the coast. On the way we crossed sev- 
eral rivers and traveled along the margins of two 
lakes. Both lakes and rivers are small, and are not 
navigable for any but small boats. Bidding our 
friend, the consul, good-bye, we hastened on board 
our ship, and are now rounding the southern point 
of Ceylon, bound for Calcutta. 

Our vessel stopped next at Pondicherry, 
to put off some wines and hardware, but 
we did not land. The city, with 112 square miles of 
territory, belongs to the French. It serves as a 
coaling station and as a depot of supplies for their 
ships in this quarter of the globe. At Madras there 
is a good artificial harbor constructed by the Indian 
government. We landed here and tried to see as 
much of the city as possible while the Rosalind was 
unloading some of her cargo. 

We found little to interest us, although the van- 
ity of the natives was somewhat amusing. They 
claim to be superior in many respects to the people 
of other parts of the country. And as others will 
not admit the claim, the inhabitants of this black, 
and not-overly-clean city seem to regard 
it a duty to impress strangers with a 
sense of their superiority. We were duly impressed, 



148 Teaching Geography. 

and returned to the harbor where for about an hour 

we watched the native boys sailing - their boats, or, 

perhaps more property speaking", their rafts. Each 

raft consists of three log's about ten feet long, and 

tied together with cocoanut strings. We expected 

every moment to see some of them dashed to pieces 

by the heavy surf that prevailed outside the storm 

wall, but we were happily disappointed. The same 

good angels who watch over the destinies of boys 

in America and Europe were evidently caring for 

the "brownies" of Madras. The principal exports 

are coffee, cotton, sugar, grain, indigo, and other 

dyes. Nearly all kinds of European manufactures 

are imported. 

After a pleasant voyage along the south- 

„. eastern coast of India, with the Eastern 

River. ' 

Ghauts in sight most of the time, we 
entered the Hoogly river. This is the western 
mouth of the Ganges and the most direct water-way 
to Calcutta. East of it is the great delta formed by 
the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers It is cut up 
into many islands by innumerable channels. The 
islands bordering on the bay of Bengal are known 
collectively as the Sunderbunds. Rice is the prin- 
cipal crop and the staple food of the people. Sev- 
eral of the islands are wooded, and the woods are 
infested with serpents and tigers which often cause 
great destruction of property and of human life. 

We were fortunate in reaching Calcutta 
Calcutta. iii -• i • i. r. • 

in the day time, and in not being 

troubled by the "bore" which sometimes causes 

great destruction on the Hoogly. The city is built 

on low land, consequently the natural drainage is 



A Trip to Ceylon and India. 149 

poor. Notwithstanding - its low and malarial posi- 
tion, however, engineering' skill has succeeded in 
rendering it fairly healthy. 

On landing, we inquire the way to the American 
consulate. A native policeman kinclljr guided us to 
the door. Our passport served as a letter of intro- 
duction, and on reading it the consul generously 
offered his services to make our stay as pleasant as 
possible. In the afternoon he took us in his carriage 
to see the most noted sights. The drive to the 
beautiful suburb of Garden Reach was very enjoy- 
able. The elegant country seats and picturesque 
gardens with their wealth of tropical plants and 
flowers, would have to be described in the glowing 
language of the Orient to do them justice. We met 
and Indian Rajah, or native prince, with his retinue. 
He was mounted on a richly caparisoned English 
hunter, and made quite an imposing figure with his 
flowing silken robes and jeweled turban. 

We met many Brahmins on their way to 

D . . the temples. Their features were as 

Brahmins. L 

clear-cut and regular as those of any 
European or American. They were not black, or 
even brown, but slightly bronzed. With bare heads 
cleanly shaved, and with arms and breast naked, 
they walked with self-conscious pride as if they 
would impress all who saw them with the fact that 
the}' - were members of the most ancient aristocracy 
upon earth. The simple string that hangs over a 
Brahmin's shoulder and across his breast confers a 
higher honor than does the insignia of the Garter, 
or of the Golden Fleece. 



150 Teaching Geography. 

But all of the natives are not Brahmins; many 
belong" to the lower castes. These are darker, many 
being almost black, and all have that timid, cring- 
ing look peculiar to the oppressed of all lands. 

There are two Calcuttas. One is the native city 
with narrow unpaved streets and with bamboo or 
mud houses, low and lilthy and swarming with naked 
or semi-naked humanity. As we were driving 
through the streets, the people were preparing their 
evening meal. The fuel used by the poor is cow- 
dung, and the smoke which it gives out is exceed- 
ingly unpleasant, consequently we were glad to enter 
the English Calcutta. This is well-built, with wide 
streets and spacious avenues. The houses are large; 
many of them of brick, covered with stucco, and 
having broad verandas. 

Calcutta is not only the chief seat of government 
for India, but also claims to be the greatest com- 
mercial city of Asia. It receives the products 
brought from the interior by the Brahmaputra and 
Ganges, and from the Sunderbunds by several canals 
which pass round and through them. Besides it has 
three trunk lines of railroads, each having" several 
branches or feeders. Its chief exports are jute, 
opium, indigo, rice, wheat, hides, cotton, raw silk, 
and tea. The imports are cotton goods, linens, 
hardware, pig-iron, silver, wine, and salt. Popula- 
tion, about 1,000,000. 

When we started from Calcutta for 

„. northern India, we could have traveled 

River. ' 

by railroad as there is a well-equipped 
line connecting the capital with the cities of ihe 
north. It runs quite close to-the Ganges, passing 



A Trip to Ceylon and India. 151 

through Benares, Allahabad, Lucknow, and Delhi; 
and then curving well to the northwest, it ends at 
the Cheuaub river, one of the principal tributaries 
of the Indus. As our purpose was, not to travel 
through the country simply, but to see as much as 
possible of the people and their manner of life, we 
decided to travel up the Ganges in one of the native 
boats. The increasing shoals in the river, and the 
cheajD communication by railroad have led to the 
giving up of steamboat navigation above Calcutta. 
The native boats carry on an immense traffic. It is 
estimated that 60,000 crafts of all shapes and sizes 
pass up or down by Benares every year. Our boat 
had a thatch roof over part of it, to protect us from 
the heat of the sun. This thatched part was our 
kitchen, dining-room, and parlor by day, and our 
bedroom by night. It was not palatial, but we were 
not proud. The view of the adjacent country was 
very satisfactory, as the banks of the river, for hun- 
dreds of miles, are low. Our crew could talk Eng- 
lish quite readily, and were willing to give us all 
the information they could. When the wind was 
favorable, an old ragged sail was used, but when un- 
favorable, poles or "sweeps" were used to propel 
the boat, and many times the crew walked on the 
'shore and pulled the boat by means of ropes. The 
downward passage is made more easily. We rarely 
traveled at night. The boat was usually tied to the 
bank at dusk and started again at daybreak. 

The first city of note at which we 

stopped was Benares, the holy city of 

the Hindoos. We staid here two days, and saw much 

that was of interest. The city is to the Hindoos 



152 Teaching Geography. 

what Mecca is to the Mohammedans. Devout people 
from all parts of India come to worship at its 
shrines, and many come to die. When a pious Hin- 
doo feels that his end is near, he has his friends 
convey him to the city to die, for then his spirit will 
pass at once to Brahma. If he dies, they burn his 
body on the funeral pile and scatter his ashes on 
the Ganges. If they do not remain by until the 
body is burned, the probabilities are that the un- 
scrupulous attendants will throw it into the river in 
a semi-charred state, in order to save the fuel for 
the next subject. Many such bodies floated by us 
on our way up here, but we did not understand their 
significance until we saw the scenes that were being 
enacted in front of Benares. Incredible as it may 
seem, sons have been known to choke their dying 
father with mud from the sacred Ganges, or to break 
open his skull so as to let the spirit out, and then to 
push the body into the river while it was but slightly 
charred. 

The largest and holiest temples are near the 
river, and imposing nights of marble stairs lead 
down to the water. Here may be seen at all hours 
of the day hundreds of devotees bathing, or stand- 
ing up to their armpits in the water, calling upon 
Brahma and repeating passages from their sacred 
books. We visited what maybe termed the leading 
theological school, the most famous bazaar, and the 
temple dedicated to the monkey god. In our ram- 
bles we passed through scenes of splendor and 
squalor, wealth and poverty, Paradise and Gehenna, 
side by side. In no other cpjarter of the globe are 
extremes found in such close juxtaposition as in 



A Trip to Ceylon and India. 153 

Asia. This is one of the distinguishing- character- 
istics of the continent. 

As we ascend the river above Benares, we have 

an excellent opportunity to see the country. The 

boat moves so slowly that when it hap- 

_.. „ pens to be rounding a bend in the cool 

The Farms. L a 

of the evening, we frequently land and 

walk across, and sometimes travel several miles in- 
land. Nowhere do we see any isolated farm houses. 
The land being cut up into little farms of two or three 
acres each, makes it possible for the people to live 
in villages. The tillers of the soil, however, are 
not the only inhabitants of the villages. In many 
of them may be found weavers, leather-dressers, 
shoemakers, and others engaged in what may well 
be termed unskilled labor. The houses are usually 
built of mud, or unburued brick, and the roof of 
baked clay. They have no doors or windows facing 
the street, as that would make it possible for stran- 
gers to see their women, a degradation that is to be 
feared more than death. 

The people of India are very poor. 

~. ,„ , There are a few wealthy nobles and 
The Feople. J 

grandees, and a comparatively small 
number who are in comfortable circumstances, but 
the great mass of the people are poor, very poor. It 
is doubtful if half of the peasants of India ever eat 
enough to satisfy their hunger. Two slight meals a 
day seems to be the regular allowance for most of 
them. Scarcity is the most constant visitor at their 
homes. It cannot well be otherwise in the home of 
the day laborer who works for six cents a day, and 
has to support a family of live or six persons on such 



154 Teaching Geography. 

a pittance. Were it not that the climate is such 
that but little clothing - is needed, and only fuel 
enough to cook what little food they have, the poor 
could not keep body and soul together. 

An Illinois farmer, driving for the first time 
through the agricultural regions of India, might 
well be astonished at the patchwork appearance of 
the crops 1 . Here an acre or two of wheat; adjoining 
it two or three acres of millet; then a patch of cot- 
ton, and next a small field of indigo, or Indian corn, 
with an occasional strip of barley. These are the 
principal crops, and they are often interspersed with 
diminutive areas of potatoes, cabbages, and onions. 
When we consider that there are no fences separat- 
ing these fields, we must not be surprised if our Illi- 
nois friend regards the patchwork as decidedly on 
the "crazy-quilt" order. 

The culture of coffee is carried on extensively in 
some parts of the country, but it is mainly in the 
hands of foreigners. The same is true of tea, whose 
culture is confined to the valley of Assam. The 
sugar produced is not sufficient for home consump- 
tion. Many of my readers may suppose that rice is 
the chief crop. This is a mistake. It is cultivated 
only in the deltas of the great rivers, on the strip of 
lowland along the western coast, and over a small 
area in the northwest. It is not the staple food of 
the people of India as a whole. Millet is their main 
dependence. The opium poppy is cultivated in the 
vicinity of Benares and Patna, and on the northern 
slopes of the Vindhya mountains. 

When we arrived at Allahabad, the great 
The Mela 

Mela was in session. These Melas were 



A Trip to Ceylon and India. 155 

originally religious convocations, a sort of Hindoo 
campmeetings. They have been partly secularized, 
and are now combinations of religious meetings and 
fairs. A temporary city of booths and tents was 
erected on the tongue of land between the Ganges 
and the Jumna rivers. It was estimated that over 
half a million people were in attendance. 

It was a motley crowd, embracing all classes and 
conditions, although the majority were of the com- 
mon people. Fakirs (religious vagabonds), mer- 
chants, and jugglers plied their several vocations. 
Thousands of men standing in the water were busily 
engag'ed in religious exercises. Husbands could be 
seen leading their wives with covered heads into 
the river, where they, too, engaged in the rites of 
their religion. All of these we respected, for evi- 
dently they were sincere. But the Fakirs! How we 
longed for a strong force of lusty, physical mission- 
aries, with a plentiful supply of scissors, combs, and 
soap, and authority to use them. The Fakirs were 
the filthiest animals we saw in India, or elsewhere. 
And the filthier they were, the greater was their 
odor of sanctity, in the estimation of the people. 
On the whole the sights witnessed at this great 
gathering were pitiful, saddening, and disgusting, 
and we willingly paid our boatmen an extra fee to 
induce them to leave a few days before the time 
set for our departure. 

From Allahabad to Cawnpore the voy- 

r» u .i- age was uneventful. Here we bade 

Rebellion. fe 

goodbye to our faithful crew, and with 
becoming decorum received their salaams. After 
refreshing ourselves at a neat English hotel, we 



156 Teaching Geography. 

hired a guide to show us the scene of the Cawnpore 
massacre. As we looked down into the fatal ravine 
that opens out on the Ganges, we could, in imagin- 
ation, see the small body of brave British soldiers, 
with the women and children in the center, march- 
ing down to the river. They had for several days 
resisted successfully the archfiend. Nana Sahib, and 
his Sepoys. Bravely they fought although their 
number was small and their strength gone because 
of exposure and lack of food. No man thought of 
surrendering, for all knew that not only the lives, 
but what was more precious, the honor of British 
women, was at stake. At length the Nana seeing 
that it would take more time to overcome them than 
he could spare, determined to destroy them through 
treachery. So he offered to let them go down the 
river to their friends and to furnish boats for the 
women, children, and wounded. The offer was in 
writing over his signature, and unfortunately was 
accepted. As they approached the ravine they 
could see the boats in readiness, with the boatmen 
standing by. They had no sooner entered the ra- 
vine, however, than a blast from a bugle was heard 
in the rear, and instantly masked batteries opened 
upon them. The attendants set fire to the boats, 
and five hundred rifles poured their missiles upon the 
devoted troops. The carnage was over in a few 
minutes. Only four of the soldiers escaped to tell 
the story. The Sepoys were instructed to spare 
the lives of the women, and they and the children 
were imprisoned in a small building of two rooms. 
On hearing that General Havelock was coming to 
their rescue, Nana ordered his troops to kill all of 



A Trip to Ceylon and India. 157 

them. This they refused to do, so he hired five 
butchers from the town to do the deed. These mon- 
sters entered with swords and knives, fastened 
the doors behind them, and in an hour and a half 
their work was finished. The common scavengers 
dragged out these once beautiful women and children 
and threw them into an open well near by. We 
visited the well. It is still the grave of those so 
cruelly massacred; and over it the great British na- 
tion has erected an elegant building which is sur- 
rounded by most charming grounds. 



158 Teaching Geography. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



A TRIP TO CEYLON AND INDIA. — CONTINUED. 

From Cawnpore we traveled overland to 
Lucknow, the scene of the famous siege. 
As we stood within the Residency it required no 
great effort of the imagination to people it once more 
with brave soldiers, Christian women and helpless 
children. We could hear the commander, Sir Henry 
Lawrence, ordering the men with his dying voice, 
to "save the ladies," and never to surrender. And 
we could hear them, in turn, pledging themselves 
that there should not be another Cawnpore, while 
wives were heard exacting promises from their hus- 
bands that when death became inevitable they would 
kill them with their own hands rather than let them 
fall alive into the hands of the Sepoys. We asked 
about the truthfulness of the story of Jessie Brown, 
and our guide, a one-leg'ged veteran, and evidently 
a Highlander, declared that the story is true, no 
matter what historians may say to the contrary. 
As we paid for this information, it is but reason- 
able that we should use it. 

"There Jessie Brown stood listening 
Till a sudden gladness broke # 

All over her face; and she caught my hand 
And drew me near and spoke: — 

" 'The Hielanders! O, dinna 3 7 e hear 

The slogan far awa? 
The McGregors', — O, I ken it weel; 

It's the grandest o' them a'! 



A Trip to Ceylon and India. 159 

" 'God bless the bonny Hielanders! 

We're saved! we're saved!' she cried, 
And fell on her knees; and thanks to God 

Flowed forth like a full flood-tide." 

To leave India without visiting - Agra 
The 
Ta" M h 1 an( ^ i lls P ec ting" the Taj Mahal would be 

sure to bring upon us the censure of our 
aesthetic friends. We therefore took the train from 
Lucknow and soon arrived in sight of the most 
beautiful building in the world. To attempt any- 
thing like an adequate description of the Taj would 
be a helpless task. Artists and critics who have 
seen it, acknowledge that language is too feeble to 
describe its matchless beauty. One enthusiastic 
traveler says that, "Viewing it from the lofty tomb 
of Akbar, five miles distant, it looks like a tent of 
snowy whiteness and rich embroidery let down from 
heaven into a paradise of earth to be the audience- 
chamber of an angel on an errand of mercy to men." 
Others are quite as enthusiastic, though perhaps not 
so poetic. We had read several descriptions of the 
building, and supposed we were ready to appreciate 
its exquisite grace and symmetry. But as we stood 
in its presence, we felt that our ideas of the struc- 
ture fell far short of the reality. We forgot the 
descriptions and stood entranced by the divine in- 
fluence of the builder's art. Several times did we 
try to turn away from the Taj to admire the well- 
kept grounds with their rows of cypress trees, 
orange, lemon, and palm, and the profusion of 
choicest flowers which border the walks, but in vain. 
Our eyes were not satisfied to dwell on the inferior 
while the superior was present; and in this instance 
man had excelled nature. 



160 Teaching Geography. 

The journey from Agra toDelhi is a short 
one, and is made over a good railroad 
and in a comfortable car. Delhi was long the cen- 
ter of Mohammedan power in India, the capital of 
the Great Moguls. Here was erected the Peacock 
Throne at a cost of $150,000,000, but it was carried 
away long ago by the Persian invader. The Sepoy 
rebellion put an end to the rule of the Great Moguls. 
Many of their palaces are in ruins, while those that 
remain are occupied by British officials. On the 
streets we saw many snake charmers and jugglers 
trying to obtain a few coins by entertaining the 
populace. Here, also, through the kindness of a 
British captain, who liked America and Americans, 
we met several intelligent Hindoos and Mohamme- 
dans, from whom we obtained much valuable infor- 
mation in regard to the country, and the hopes and 
aspirations of their people. 

Our readers will understand, no doubt, 
The Women , ,, . ,.,,, . , . ,, , 

„, .. why there is so little said in these notes 

of India. J 

about the women of India. Custom ex- 
cludes them from the sight of all men except those 
of their own immediate family. The "Nautch girls," 
that is the dancing 1 girls, may be seen in any of the 
large cities. They are social out-casts, yet the most 
intelligent class of native women. At feasts and 
merry-makings they are hired to entertain the guests 
with their witticisms, singing, and dancing. But 
even they cannot be hired to engage in a dance with 
persons of the opposite sex. Much less could any 
respectable woman be induced to do so. How Amer- 
icans and Europeans can permit their wives and 
daughters to take part in mixed dances is one of the 



A Trip to Ceylon and India. 161 

mysteries which the eastern mind cannot fathom. 

Bidding farewell to our friends at Delhi 

n . we took the train to Moultan, on the 

Cashmere. 

Chenaub river, one of the principal trib- 
utaries of the Indus. Here we hesitated some time 
as to what course to pursue next. We desired very 
much to go north to Cashmere. 

"Who has not heard of the Vale of Cashmere, 

With its roses the brightest that earth ever yave, 

Its temples, and grottos, and fountains as clear 

As the love-lighted eyes that hang over their wave." 

We had heard of the famous vale, had read about 

the skill of its weavers and silversmiths, and would 

have liked to see for ourselves the products of their 

skill but the brief time at our command forbade our 

doing so. Extravagant as Moore's description may 

seem, modern travelers, who have visited the region, 

tell us that the poet's fancy did not far exceed the 

reality; that it is a veritable paradise surrounded by 

walls of snow-capped mountains, a smile of heaven 

set in the midst of nature's frowns. They also tell 

us that the valley is not only famous for its scenery, 

but for the productiveness of its soil as well. Wheat, 

maize, barley, and millet are the principal crops, but 

the common fruits and vegetables are cultivated 

with profit. 

At Moultan we embarked on the Chen- 
The Indus , , , , 

n . aub river, and as we were borne along 

River. ' ° 

b}^ the current, we recalled the fact 
that more than twenty-two hundred years ago 
Alexander the Great sailed over the same 
course. It was at the site of Moultan that he came 
near losing his life in trving to take the stronghold 



162 Teaching Geography. 

of the Malli. And it was at the junction of the 
Chenaub with the Indus that he ordered extensive 
dockyards to be constructed and his last Alexandria 
to be built. The volume of the Indus grows less and 
less as we approach the delta, owing to its passing" 
through a rainless region , the eastern outskirts of 
the desert of Gedrosia, which proved so destructive 
to the Macedonian hosts. Notwithstanding its dis- 
couraging natural conditions^ much of the land on 
both sides of the river, back as far as we could see, 
is rendered productive bj T means of irrigating' canals. 
The delta is very fertile, another Egypt, and like 
Egypt is fertilized ever}' } y ear by the river which 
made it. 

We left the Indus at Hydrabad and traveled by 
rail to the great city of Bombay. Everywhere along- 
the route, we could see the farmers trying to coax 
or force a scanty subsistence from the earth. In 
many places we could see carts drawn b}' a single 
ox. carrying last 3-ears crop to market, or conve} T - 
ing the famih T on a visiting trip. When the occu- 
pants were women of the higher or middle castes, 
the cart had a canopy over it as a protection from 
the sun, and curtains at the sides as a protection 
from the gaze of the unclean, by which is meant 
persons of the lower castes and foreigners, whose 
glance is to be dreaded more than the fiercest rays 
of the sun. 

Bombav, the second city of India in 
Bombay. . ' . . .f 

size and importance, is situated on the 

western coast of the peninsula. It is the great 
commercial rival of Calcutta, but is handicapped by 
the fact that its connection with the interior is en- 



A Trip to Ceylon and India. 163 

tirely by railway, while its rival not only has an 
extensive system of railroads, but is also able to 
reach the most fertile parts of the country by means 
of the Brahmaputra and Ganges rivers, with their 
tributaries. Bombay is still further hindered in the 
commercial race by the fewness of its exports; cot- 
ton, grain, and opium being the only articles worthy 
of mention, while Calcutta has a great variety. Its 
nearness to the Suez canal, however, together with 
its good harbor, offsets in part the advantages of 
the city on the Hoogly. 

When the train arrived at the well-appointed 
union station, we could easily imagine ourselves in 
one of the large cities of America. The offers of 
cabs, carriages, and "buses" were as many and as 
hearty as we ever had made to us in Chicago, and 
they were made in fully as many varieties of English. 
Engaging a carriage and claiming our "luggage," 
we drove over smoothly paved streets to an excel- 
lent hotel. Next morning we started out shortly 
after breakfast to view the city. It is the most 
English of all the cities of India that we visited. 
The houses of the Europeans and the wealthy na- 
tives are large and commodious, and as a general 
thing each is surrounded by beautiful grounds, or 
"gardens," as they are termed here. The stores on 
the leading business streets are three or four stories 
high, and well stocked with the products of both 
the Orient and the Occident. And although there is 
much filth and poverty in the native quarter of the 
city, yet the conditions are not so dreadfully dis- 
gusting as in Calcutta. 



164 Teaching Geography. 

The most pleasing sight that met our gaze was 
an American flag floating from the masthead of a 
steamer that was unloading an assorted cargo of 
machinery, farming implements, and railroad sup- 
plies. We had seen the flag waving its protecting 
folds over the consular residences in all the great 
commercial centers that we visited; but it meant 
more to us in this instance since it was recently from 
home, and would soon return again. The sight sug- 
gested a slight touch of home-sickness, and we de- 
termined to finish our itinerary as quickly as 
possible. We felt, however, that we must visit the 
Deccan and see for ourselves something of the rav- 
ages made by the famine and the bubonic plague. 

A day's travel by railroad brought us 
to Hyderabad in the south-central part 
of the peninsula. The sights that we saw were 
heart-rending; men, women, and children dying for 
the want of something to eat, while the world had 
more than food enough for all its inhabitants. We 
thought of the corn cribs of Illinois, full to over- 
flowing with nourishing food, and enough of it being 
wasted by rats to save millions of human lives in 
this poor miserable country. It is sad, it is pitiful, 
that strong men, helpless women, and innocent 
children must die of starvation and rot by the road- 
side, when a little of the world's superabundance 
would save their lives. The government of India is 
doing much to relieve the suffering, and so are the 
the missionaries, but notwithstanding their efforts 
the condition of the poor is terrible. And this is 
not due to their want of thrift as many may sup- 
pose, but to the lack of sufficient rain. The Deccan 



A Trip to Ceylon and India. 165 

peninsula being" bordered by the eastern and west- 
ern Ghauts, it often happens that not enough of the 
rains, brought by the monsoons, is permitted to 
reach the interior plateau to render the soil produc- 
tive. When such conditions prevail, they are sure 
to be followed by famine, and famine is always the 
fore-runner of a plague of some kind. It is so now, 
and the twin sisters are gloating over their work. 

On our return to Bombay we engaged 

., . passage on the steamer Brunswick 

Marriage. r - & 

bound for Liverpool. As it would not 
leave for two or three days we determined to use 
the time in writing' some general notes on India. 
Before doing so, however, we wish to say that we 
did not witness a marriage or a funeral service while 
in the country. We understood that child marriage 
still prevails; that it is no uncommon thing for girls 
of eight or ten years to be married to boys of like 
age, or even to men of twenty, thirty, or forty years; 
and that the parents would consider themselves dis- 
graced if their daughter was not married, or at least 
betrothed, by the time she was twelve years of age. 

In regard to the manner of disposing of 
th d d * ne dead, we have already stated that 

the Hindoos burn theirs. For many ages 
it was the custom to burn the living wives on the 
funeral pile of their dead husbands; but this prac- 
tice of sutteeism has been suppressed by the British. 
The Mohammedans always bury their dead; the poor 
in shallow graves, many of which are robbed by the 
jackals that infest the country; the rich in costly 
mausoleums. The Parsees of Bombay have erected 
a high tower, across whose top is a heavy grating. 



166 Teaching Geography. 

On this grating" they place their dead, and the vul- 
tures gorge themselves on the flesh. This seems the 
most shocking" custom of all; and yet the Parsees 
are among the most intelligent and enterprising por- 
tion of the community. 

India, the middle one of three great pen- 
f . .. ' insulas that project south from Asia, has 

natural boundaries throughout. On the 
north are the Himalaya Mountains, on the west the 
Suliman separate it from Afghanistan and Beloo- 
chistan, and on the east it is separated from Bur- 
mah by spurs of the Himalayas; while on the 
southeast and southwest it is washed by the Bay of 
Bengal and the Arabian Sea, respectively. From 
north to south it is 1,900 miles, or about five times 
the length of Illinois. Its area is about twenty- 
seven times as great as that of Illinois, and its popu- 
lation more than three times that of the entire 
United States. This vast empire is governed by 
Great Britain ; for although there are a few so-called 
independent states governed by native rulers, yet 
even they are subject to British control. 

The surface is divided into three dis- 

tinctly marked divisions. In the north, 
bordering on the Himalayas, is a belt of low moun- 
tains and foothills with an average width of a hun- 
dred miles. This region is occupied by various 
tribes of mountaineers; and the British officials and 
others who can afford to do so, spend several weeks 
here each year to recuperate from the depressing in- 
fluence of the lowlands. South, of this hilly tract 
is a great plain thirteen or fourteen hundred miles 
long and from two hundred to three hundred miles 



A Trip to Ceylon and India. 167 

wide, and as level as a house floor. This plain con- 
sists of alluvial deposit washed down from the Him- 
alayas and from Thibet, and is the most fertile and 
best cultivated part of the country. It is the home 
of the Hindoos, and was wrested by their Aryan an- 
cestors from its earlier occupants. 

Farther to the south, and separated from the 
great central plain by the Vindhya mountains, is 
the peninsula of Deccan. It consists of a great 
plateau bounded on the east and west by the Ghauts 
mountains, which unite at Cape Comorin. The in- 
habitants belong" to the Dravidian family, and are 
supposed to have been driven south by the conquer- 
ing Arj^ans. 

Of the great rivers cf India, the Brah- 
Rivcrs 

maputra and Indus have their origin 

and much of their course north of the Himalayas, 
but they bestow their richest gifts on India. T e 
Ganges, the sacred river, rises on the south slope of 
the Himalayas, at the foot of a great snow-bed, 
10,000 feet above the level of the sea. It is 1,500 
miles long, and its average width is greater than 
that of the Mississippi. With all due respect to 
the deity whose name it bears, it is a treacherous 
stream, full of shoals and shifting mud-banks, and 
not fit for ordinary navigation. 

The climate is hot. At no time of the 
year is it safe for Europeans to be ex- 
posed to the sun bareheaded. But while all seasons 
are hot, the greatest heat prevails from the middle 
of May to the middle of June. This is a trying 
time for foreigners, and were it not for the pankas, 
or fans, with which the houses are fitted up, the 



16S Teaching Geography. 

heat would be unendurable. There is no use for 
fires, except for cooking - purposes, therefore the 
houses are built without chimneys, as the cooking 
is done in detached kitchens, or sheds. 

In the rainy seasons the county is covered with 
verdure, but as the cultivated crops. have already 
been discussed, it only remains to be said that great 
care is taken of the forests. They are in charge of 
skillfully trained foresters, who -are government 
•officials. These functionaries not onl} 7 care for the 
forests, but it is also apart of their duty to see that 
trees are planted along the country roads. As a 
consequence, one may drive for hundreds of miles 
between rows of mango trees, valuable both for 
their shade and fruit. The jungles are numerous; 
but it should be borne in mind that "a jungle in India 
means any portion of wild land, whether covered 
with grass, bush, or timber." The jungles are the 
homes of many wild animals. The elephant, lion, 
tiger, leopard, hyena, jackal, etc., abound, and often 
commit great depredations upon the growing crops; 
while some of them even love to feast upon the own- 
ers. Serpents also are numerous, and disposed to 
court- human society. The poorer natives, going 
barefooted and barelegged, suffer most from their 
venemous bites; foreigners are rarely injured. 

Our early reading - led us to believe that 
Minerals T t • u t 

India was a very rich country. In imag- 
ination we could see the mines of Golconda glitter- 
ing with diamonds, while g'old was so plenty that it 
was scarcely worth digging. The fact is, it is a com- 
paratively poor country. Its soil is productive in 
the plains, but on the plateaus it is thin and poor, 



A Trip to Ceylon and India. 169 

and a good crop is the exception. There are but few 
places where it pays to mine for gold and silver. 
Iron is very plentiful, but because of the want of 
coal it is cheaper to import the metal from Europe 
than it is to attempt to mine and smelt the native 
ore. Coal has recently been found in a few locali- 
ties, and if it should prove of good quality, it would 
be of more value to India than all its gems and preci- 
ous metals. 

The manufacturers are few and feeble. 

rianufactures. t-, ., -, -, 

Some years ago European capital and 

skill attempted the manufacture of cotton goods. 
The enterprise was very successful, so much so that 
the cotton kings of Manchester were alarmed. They 
raised a great hue and cry about the cheap labor of 
Asiatics being brought into competition with Eng- 
lish labor. Their cry was listened to, and matters 
were so adjusted by the home government that the 
factories of India had to close their doors, and the 
poor of the country had to buy their few cotton gar- 
ments at Manchester prices. 

But the whistle of the Brunswick is blowing, and 
that means that passengers must be on board in an 
hour. So we close these notes, pack our grips, and 
say good-by to our readers. 



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